Company -

fixed assets

· Own- permanently at the disposal of the enterprise and formed at the expense of its own resources

· Borrowed- bank loans, commercial loans (liabilities)

Rationing of working capital- the basis for the rational use of economic assets of the enterprise. It consists in the development of reasonable norms and standards for their consumption, necessary to create a constant minimum stock for the smooth operation of the enterprise.

According to the degree of planning, working capital is divided into standardized and non-standardized.

TO normalized include working capital in inventories.

TO non-standardized working capital includes: cash, shipped goods and delivered works, all types of receivables, etc.

Profitability - an indicator of the effectiveness of the enterprise, characterizing the level of return on costs and the degree of use of funds. IN general view it is calculated as the ratio of profit to costs and is expressed as a percentage.

The profitability of the enterprise can only be when income exceeds expenses.

An increase in the profitability indicator can only be facilitated by a reduction in the cost of finished products while improving its quality.

Distinguish the following types profitability:

1) Profitability of production (total) shows the ratio of the total amount of profit to the average annual cost of fixed and normalized working capital (the amount of profit per 1 rub. production assets):

Where P- the amount of profit; OS Wed- average annual cost of fixed assets; obs avg- the average for the year balances of working capital.

This indicator characterizes the efficiency of production economic activity enterprises, reflecting at what amount of capital used this mass of profit was obtained.

Using the profitability of products evaluate the efficiency of production certain types products, and the profitability of production, or the overall balance sheet profitability, serves as an indicator of the efficiency of the enterprise (industry) as a whole.

An increase in the level of profitability is facilitated by an increase in the mass of profits, a reduction in the cost of production, and an improvement in the use of production assets. Profitability indicators are used in assessing financial condition enterprises.

2) return on equity Rk, which is characterized by the size of the authorized fund (share capital), it is of interest to all shareholders, because defines the upper limit of dividends:

Pk \u003d P / Ks,

where P - net profit (including the payment of interest on the loan);

Кс - equity, the value of which is taken according to the balance sheet and is equal to the amount of assets minus debt obligations.

3) profitability of total assets Ra - characterizes the efficiency of using all cash assets of the enterprise:

Ra = P / Ka,

where Ka - the average amount of assets of the balance sheet of the enterprise;

4) profitability of products Rprod . characterizes the cost effectiveness of its production and marketing:

Pr / Wed,

where Pr - profit from the sale of products (works, services);

Cp is the total cost of goods sold;

5) profitability of sales Рр - shows the share of profit attributable to one monetary unit of sales (cost of sales Vр):

Рр = Pr / Vр.

Types of enterprises by form of ownership.

Company - it is an independent, organizationally separate economic entity that manufactures and sells products, performs industrial work or provides paid services.

The main features of the classification of enterprises are: industry affiliation; production structure; resources used; destination of finished products; dimensions; type of ownership; organizational and legal form; technological and technical community.

According to the structure of production, enterprises are divided into highly specialized (produce a limited range of products of mass or large-scale production), diversified (produce products of a wide range and purpose) and combined (aimed at the integrated use of raw materials: one type of raw material at the same enterprise is converted in parallel or sequentially into another, and then - in the third type; most often found in the chemical, textile and metallurgical industries).

Depending on the resources used, enterprises are divided into:

Companies that mainly use labor resources(labor-intensive);

Enterprises that intensively use the means of production (capital-intensive);

Enterprises that intensively use materials (material-intensive).

Depending on the capacity of the production potential (size), enterprises are divided into large, medium and small.

Classification of enterprises by form of ownership:

1. A private enterprise is the property of an individual citizen who has the right to hire labor, the number of which is not limited. It is fully taxed. A private enterprise must necessarily have a charter, which stipulates the basic principles of the operation of this enterprise. The charter of the enterprise should not contradict the current legislation.

2. Collective enterprises are enterprises whose property is owned by a certain number of people who have the right to hire labor. Collective enterprises include: rental enterprises; production cooperatives; business partnerships (including joint-stock companies).

3. State enterprise. State, which is understood as both purely state (including municipal), where capital and management are wholly owned by the state, and mixed, where the state has a large part of the capital or plays a decisive role in management.

According to the organizational and legal form, enterprises are divided into: a limited liability partnership, an additional liability partnership, a joint-stock company, a general partnership, a limited partnership.

According to the nature of the raw materials consumed, all enterprises are grouped into enterprises of the extractive industry (oil and coal mining enterprises) and enterprises of the manufacturing industry (engineering, metalworking).

On the basis of technical and technological commonality, four types of enterprises are distinguished: with a continuous production process (an enterprise operates 24 hours a day, for example, a bakery); with a discrete (discontinuous) production process; with a predominance of mechanical production processes (furniture enterprises, light industry); with a predominance of chemical production processes (pharmaceutical, chemical industries).

Enterprises of various industries have their own specific features arising from the nature of production, the equipment and technology used, and the qualifications of personnel. At the same time, they all have a number of common features that allow them to be classified in a number of areas: forms of ownership, industry affiliation, level of concentration of production, degree of specialization, type of production, level of mechanization and automation.

Enterprises can be classified according to various criteria:

According to the purpose of the products or works, services;

by features technological process,

By organizational types of building a management structure;

By the nature of the raw materials consumed and the methods of its processing;

By level of specialization;

By form of ownership;

According to the method of distribution of profits and losses;

According to the sources of formation of property;

By size, etc.

By activity goals allocate commercial and non-commercial.. Commercial enterprises(organizations ) focused on making a profit and its distribution, including among the participants in the creation or operation of the enterprise. Commercial organizations may act in the form of state and municipal unitary enterprises, private unitary enterprises, business partnerships, business companies, production cooperatives.

By forms of ownership enterprises are either public or private.

The purpose for the implementation of which an enterprise (organization) is created largely affects the choice of its organizational and legal form. The organizational and legal forms that are chosen for the functioning of the enterprise are determined by its features and current legislation

By forms of management allocate business partnerships and companies, production cooperatives, unitary enterprises. The variety of organizational and legal forms allows you to choose the most appropriate for the goals and conditions of the enterprise.

By sizes enterprises are grouped into large, medium and small. Signs of attributing enterprises to one of these subgroups are indicated in legislative or regulations.

In the Republic of Belarus, small enterprises include enterprises with average headcount:

In industry and transport - up to 100 people;

IN agriculture and scientific and technical sphere - up to 50 people;

in construction and wholesale trade– up to 50 people;

In retail trade and consumer services - up to 30 people;

In other sectors of the non-productive sphere - up to 50 people.

Small businesses with low headcount, profits or sales tend to have advantages over large ones in terms of tax incentives or other motivational mechanisms that contribute to the development and strengthening of small business.

By participation of foreign capital enterprises are divided into joint, foreign and foreign.

Industry affiliation It is determined by a number of features: the nature of the impact on the object of labor, the economic purpose of the product, the nature of the technological process, and the time of work during the year. By industry feature enterprises belong to the sphere of material (industry, construction, agriculture, communications, transport) and non-material production (health, education, trade, science, culture, etc.).

In turn, each industry is divided into sub-sectors. For example, in industry, according to the nature of raw materials or the purpose of the finished product, the coal industry, energy, metallurgy, mechanical engineering, chemical, light and food industry, production of building materials. In mechanical engineering, machine tool building, automotive industry, tractor building, instrument making, etc. are distinguished. Industry classification can be enlarged and detailed. It is used to statistically characterize the structure of enterprises and their performance indicators.

By subordination subsidiaries, branches and other structures with a current account and a separate balance sheet (or without), with the right (or without) a legal entity are allocated.

By the nature of the impact on the object of labor they are divided into mining and manufacturing enterprises.

According to the economic purpose of products, that is, according to its role in the production of the total product, all enterprises are divided into producing means of production and producing consumer goods.

By the nature of technological and production processes enterprises are divided into two groups: with discontinuous and continuous production.

By working time during the year, year-round and seasonal enterprises are distinguished.

By the level of concentration of production enterprises can be large, medium and small. It depends on the size of output, the number of workers, the cost of fixed assets and the power-to-weight ratio of labor.

By degree of specialization enterprises are divided into specialized (producing homogeneous products with a limited range), universal (producing a wide range of products or performing many various kinds works - tool, repair plants) and mixed.

By type of production There are enterprises with mass, serial and single production.

According to the degree of mechanization and automation allocate enterprises with automated, complex-mechanized and partially mechanized production.

To create effective forms of organization of production, enterprises on a contractual basis can create consortiums, concerns, intersectoral state associations, associations and other large organizational structures.

The entrepreneurial sector of the national economy usually has a huge number of enterprises that, for the purposes of economic analysis grouped according to a number of essential features.

The most common are classifications by form of ownership, size, nature of activity, industry affiliation, dominant factor of production, legal status.

According to the form of ownership, enterprises are divided into:

• - private, which can exist either as completely independent, independent firms, or in the form of associations and their constituent parts. Private firms can also include those firms in which the state has a share of the capital (but not predominant);
• - state, which are understood as purely state (including municipal), where capital and management are wholly owned by the state, and mixed, where the state owns most of the capital or plays a decisive role in management. According to the recommendation of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), state-owned enterprises should be considered enterprises in which state bodies own the majority of the capital (over 50%), and/or those that are controlled by them (through state officials working in the enterprise).

Of these two categories of enterprises, mixed enterprises are often distinguished, that is, enterprises with a significant or predominant state share in the capital. This category of enterprises sometimes occupies a significant place in the economic life of the country, for example, in Russia in the late 1990s, when, as a result of privatization, the state retained a stake in many privatized enterprises (a quarter of all employed workers work at these enterprises).

Enterprises are categorized according to their size:

• - small,
• - medium,
• - large.

Based on two main parameters - the number of employees and the volume of production (sales).

Small enterprises usually dominate in number (in Russia they account for about half of total number enterprises).

IN different countries ah different definitions of a small business. According to the law “On state support of small business in Russian Federation"dated June 14, 1995 in our country, these include those where the average number of employees does not exceed 30 people in retail trade and consumer services, 50 people in wholesale trade, 60 people in the scientific and technical field, agriculture, in transport, construction and industry - 100 people

Classification of firms by nature of activity:

• - production
• - non-production

Assumes their division into producing material goods (consumer or investment goods) and services.

Classification of enterprises by industry, subdivides them into:

• - industrial,
• - agricultural,
• - trading,
• - transport,
• - banking,
• - insurance, etc.

The classification of enterprises on the basis of the dominant factor of production provides for:

• - labor intensive
• - capital-intensive,
• - material-intensive,
• - science-intensive.

According to the legal status (organizational and legal forms) in Russia, they distinguish, first of all:

• - business partnerships and companies;
• - production cooperatives;
• - state and municipal unitary enterprises;
• - individual entrepreneurs;
• - non-profit enterprises.

Mainsigns of classificationenterprises are:

branch and subject specialization;

production structure;

enterprise size.

Industry-specific differences in products are considered to be the main ones.

According to this classificationcompanies are divided into:

industrial, agricultural, transport, communications, construction enterprises.

Industrytraditionally divided into two large industry groups: mining and processing industry.

In turn, the processing industry is divided into branches of light, food, heavy industry, etc.

According to their structure, enterprises are divided into:

highly specialized;

multidisciplinary (universal);

combined (mixed).

Highly specialized enterprises produce a limited range of products for mass or large-scale production.

TOmultidisciplinaryrefer enterprises producing a wide range of products for various purposes (in industry and agriculture).

Combinedenterprises more common in the chemical, textile industry, agriculture. The bottom line is that one type of raw material or finished product at the same enterprise is transformed in parallel or sequentially into another, and then into the next type.

Byenterprise sizeare divided intothree groups:

small (up to 50 employees), medium (from 50 to 500 (rarely up to 300)) and large (over 500 employees).

When assigning an enterprise to one of the groups, the following can be usedindicators: the number of employees, the cost of output, the cost of fixed assets.

By field of activitysubdivided into manufacturing and non-manufacturing enterprises.

By type of ownershipenterprises are divided into state, municipal, private, cooperative, etc.

By scale entrepreneurial activity companies can be divided into:

individual enterprises and collective enterprises.

Hours of operation throughout the year subdivided into year-round enterprises, seasonal enterprises.

According to the degree of production automation- automated, partially automated, mechanized, partially mechanized, machine-manual and manual.

By nature of activity enterprises are:

non-commercial - not related to the sale of products for the sake of enrichment (charitable activities);

commercial - enterprises that generate income.

4. Types of organizational and legal forms of enterprises.

In accordance with the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, the following organizational forms of commercial enterprises can be created in Russia: business partnerships and companies, production cooperatives, state and municipal unitary enterprises. Business partnerships and companies:

general partnership;

limited partnership (limited partnership);

Limited Liability Company,

additional liability company;

joint-stock company (open and closed).

General partnership. Its participants, in accordance with the agreement concluded between them, are engaged in entrepreneurial activities and are liable for its obligations with their property, i.e. unlimited liability applies to the participants of a general partnership. A participant in a full partnership that is not its founder is liable on an equal basis with other participants for obligations that arose before he joined the partnership. A participant who has left the partnership shall be liable for the obligations of the partnership that arose before the moment of his withdrawal, on an equal basis with the remaining participants within two years from the date of approval of the report on the activities of the partnership for the year in which he left the partnership. Faith partnership. It is a partnership in which, along with the participants who carry out entrepreneurial activities on behalf of the partnership and are responsible for the circumstances of the partnership with their property, there are participants-contributors (limited partners) who bear the risk of losses within the limits of their contributions and do not take part in the implementation of entrepreneurial activities by the partnership. activities. Limited Liability Company. This is a company founded by one or more persons, the authorized capital of which is divided into shares of the sizes determined by the constituent documents. Members of a limited liability company bear the risk of losses associated with the activities of the company within the value of their contributions. Society with additional liability. A feature of such a company is that its participants bear subsidiary liability for the obligations of the company in the same multiple for all of the value of their contributions. All other norms of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation on a limited liability company may be applied to an additional liability company. Joint-Stock Company. It is recognized as a company whose authorized capital is divided into a certain number of shares. Members of the company are not liable for its obligations and bear the risk of losses associated with the activities of the company, within the value of their shares. A joint stock company whose members can freely sell their shares without the consent of other shareholders is recognized as an open joint stock company. Such a company has the right to conduct an open subscription for the shares they issue and their free sale on the terms established by law. A joint stock company whose shares are distributed only among its founders or other predetermined circle of persons is recognized as a closed joint stock company. Such a company is not entitled to conduct an open subscription for shares issued by it. production cooperatives. This is a voluntary association of citizens on the basis of membership for joint production or other economic activities based on their personal labor or other participation and the association of its members (participants) of property shares. Members of a production cooperative bear subsidiary liability for its obligations. The profit of the cooperative is distributed among its members in accordance with their labor participation. The property remaining after the liquidation of the cooperative and the satisfaction of the claims of its creditors are distributed in the same manner.

State and municipal unitary enterprises. A unitary enterprise is a commercial organization that is not endowed with the right of ownership of the property assigned to the owner. The property of a unitary enterprise is indivisible and cannot be distributed by contribution (shares, shares). Including between employees of the enterprise. Only state and municipal enterprises can be created in the form of unitary enterprises. Unitary enterprises are divided into two categories:

unitary enterprises based on the right of economic management;

unitary enterprises based on the right of operational management.

Right of economic management- this is the right of the enterprise to own, use and dispose of the property of the owner within the limits established by law or other legal acts. The right of operational management- this is the right of the enterprise to own, use and dispose of the property of the owner assigned to it within the limits established by law, in accordance with the goals of its activities, the tasks of the owner and the purpose of the property. The right of economic management is wider than the right of operational management, i.e. an enterprise operating on the basis of the right of economic management has greater independence in management. Enterprises can create various associations.

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LECTURE 2. Types, forms, classification of enterprises

1. The concept of a legal entity, entrepreneurship

2. Organizational and legal forms of firms in the Russian Federation. Their advantages and disadvantages.

3. Business combinations

The main economic structural unit in a market economy is the enterprise. It is the enterprise that is the main producer of goods and services, the main market entity that enters into various economic relations with other entities.

Entrepreneurial activity (entrepreneurship) - initiative independent activity legal entities or citizens, aimed at making a profit.

Business entities in Russia can be:

Citizens of the Russian Federation;

Citizens of foreign countries;

Association of citizens (collective entrepreneurs). The status of an entrepreneur is acquired after the state registration of a legal or individual. Entrepreneurial activity cannot be carried out without registration.

The rights, obligations, responsibilities and guarantees of entrepreneurs are regulated by national legislation.

Entrepreneurial activity can be carried out with or without the formation of a legal entity. Entrepreneurial activity without the formation of a legal entity is carried out by a citizen - individual entrepreneur that have passed the state registration.

The concept of a legal entity

Entity - an organization that has separate property in ownership, economic management or operational management, is liable for its obligations with this property, can acquire or exercise property and personal non-property rights on its own behalf, incur obligations, be a plaintiff and answer in court. A legal entity is characterized by the following main features:

Property isolation, i.e. the presence of an independent balance sheet for commercial organizations or an independent estimate for non-profit organizations.

Independent property liability, i.e. liability for its obligations, separate property;

Independent performance in civil circulation on your own behalf, the ability to conclude civil law contracts(purchase and sale, supply, transportation, loan, lease, contract, etc.)

Organizational unity, i.e. the presence of an appropriate stable structure, enshrined in founding documents.

Entrepreneurship and business

The concept of "business" is closely related to the concept of "entrepreneurship". Business(business, commercial activity) - the performance of commercial operations for the production, exchange, sale of goods and services, the result of which may be profit or loss. Business is a broader concept than entrepreneurial activity, since business is the performance of any, including one-time, commercial transactions in any field of activity. Here lies the main difference between these concepts: if entrepreneurship is always “formalized” and acts in the form of entrepreneurial structures, then non-entrepreneurial organizations and institutions that make commercial transactions occasionally in the commodity or monetary form.

Company

The main form of business organization is the enterprise.

Enterprises - economic agents or persons operating in a market economy, engaged in the production, sale of goods and services in order to make a profit and maximize it.

Production in a market economy refers to any type of activity that generates income, regardless of whether they occur in the sphere of material production or in the service sector.

Enterprise types

For a deeper study of entrepreneurial activity, enterprises are usually classified according to the type and nature of economic activity, forms of ownership, ownership of capital and control over it, legal status and other features.

Classification by type and nature of activity

First of all, enterprises differ from each other by industry. They are subdivided into industrial and non-industrial enterprises, and then into smaller subdivisions (industrial, agricultural, credit and financial, transport, etc.).

Trade enterprises engaged in the implementation of operations for the purchase and sale of goods.

Freight forwarding companies specialize in carrying out operations for the delivery of goods to the buyer, fulfilling orders from industrial, commercial and other firms. The functions of these enterprises are very diverse.

Further, based on the type or kind of products or services produced by an enterprise, it is possible to single out industry-specific and sub-industry types of enterprises (for example, automotive, coal mining, insurance, etc.).

Classification by enterprise size

One of the most important characteristics of an enterprise is its size, which is determined primarily by the number of (employed) workers. As a rule, on this basis, enterprises are subdivided as follows: small - up to 50 employees; medium - from 50 to 500 (sometimes - up to 300); large - over 500, including especially large - over 1000 employees. Determining the size of an enterprise by the number of employees can be supplemented by other characteristics - sales volume, assets, profits, etc.

The size of enterprises is closely related to their industry affiliation.

In general, the leading role in the national economy, despite their relatively small number, is played by large enterprises. The main number of enterprises is represented by small and medium-sized enterprises.

The Russian economy is still characterized by a low share of small and medium-sized private entrepreneurship.

The creation of a network of small enterprises is a necessary condition for the formation of an economic environment that is conducive to the emergence of competition between producers, the development of market relations, counteracting monopoly in production and other areas of activity. Small businesses are able to quickly respond to changes in consumer demand, they are the most susceptible to technical innovations, and provide a quick return on investment. In the most developed countries of the world, small businesses account for 50-70% of the increase in the number of jobs.

On May 12, 1995, the State Duma of the Russian Federation adopted the federal law on state support of small business in the Russian Federation.

The Law states: “Small business entities are commercial organizations, in the authorized capital of which the share of participation of the Russian Federation, constituent entities of the Russian Federation, public organizations, religious organizations, charitable and other bodies does not exceed 25%, the share owned by one or more persons who are not small businesses does not exceed 25%.

As can be seen from this norm, a mandatory requirement for small enterprises is the limited possibility of participation of other legal entities in the authorized capital of small enterprises. Another indispensable condition for classifying enterprises as small is the establishment of a limit average population employed: in industry, construction, transport - 100 people; in agriculture, in the scientific and technical sphere - 60 people; in wholesale trade - 50 people; in retail trade and consumer services - 30 people; in other industries and in the implementation of other activities - 50 people.

There are about 900 thousand small enterprises in the country.

Directions and measures to improve the efficiency of the use of public funds allocated for the development of small business are formulated in the Federal Law on State Support for Small Business in the Russian Federation:

Taxation of small businesses;

The right of small business entities to apply accelerated depreciation of fixed production assets with the allocation of costs to production costs in an amount that is two times higher than the norms established for the corresponding types of fixed assets.

Lending to small businesses, carried out on preferential terms with compensation for the difference credit institutions at the expense of small business support funds.

Establishment of mutual lending societies of small business entities to accumulate temporarily free funds of the participants of these societies in order to implement and develop a system of mutual financial assistance.

Insurance of small businesses on preferential terms for insurance organizations with the possibility of compensating for lost profits from the relevant small business support fund;

Reservation for small business entities of a certain share of orders for the production and supply of certain types of products and goods (services) for state needs.

Creation of a network of technology parks, leasing companies, business incubators, production and technology centers and other infrastructure facilities created to support small businesses, etc.

Classification by form of ownership

The form of ownership underlies the legal status of the enterprise. According to the forms of ownership, private, state, municipal, cooperative and other enterprises are distinguished.

In all countries with market economy most enterprises are privately owned.

Private enterprises can exist in the form of independent independent companies or in the form of associations created both on the basis of a participation system and on the basis of agreements between the participants in the association.

State enterprises along with private firms act as contractors in economic turnover. Under the state enterprises are understood as purely state, and mixed, or semi-state. In purely state-owned enterprises, the state usually owns all the share capital received as a result of nationalization or newly created.

State industrial firms occupy a fairly strong position in the production of different countries. Their specific gravity in industrial output fluctuates between 20-25% for individual countries. Most of the state-owned enterprises are concentrated in the extractive industries.

Classification by ownership of capital

By ownership of capital and, accordingly, by control over the enterprise, national, foreign and joint (mixed) enterprises are distinguished.

National name the enterprises whose capital belongs to the entrepreneurs of their country.

Foreign called enterprises, the capital of which belongs to foreign entrepreneurs, fully or in a certain part providing their control.

Foreign enterprises are formed either by creating joint-stock company, or by buying up controlling stakes in local firms, leading to the emergence of foreign control.

mixed capital refers to enterprises whose capital is owned by entrepreneurs from two or more countries.

Mixed enterprises - this is one of the varieties of international interweaving of capital. Enterprises with mixed capital are called joint ventures in cases where the purpose of their creation is the implementation of joint entrepreneurial activities. Forms of mixed capital companies are very diverse. Most often, international associations are created in the form of mixed companies: cartels, syndicates, trusts, concerns.

IN modern conditions the largest industrial firms are focusing on the creation of joint manufacturing enterprises, as well as enterprises for the implementation scientific and technical cooperation, including for sharing patents and licenses, as well as the implementation of agreements on cooperation and specialization of production. Joint ventures are especially numerous in new and rapidly growing industries requiring huge one-time investments - in oil refining, petrochemicals, chemical industry, production of plastics, synthetic rubber, aluminum, nuclear power.

Classification by organizational and legal forms

Civil Code The Russian Federation established the composition of the organizational and legal forms of enterprises - legal entities and defined the rights of citizens - individuals.

Let us consider in more detail the classification of enterprises according to institutional (organizational and legal) differences, primarily related to the legal principles of securing ownership (see Fig. 1.1.1). The largest group of enterprises is business partnerships and companies. Business partnerships and companies are commercial organizations with authorized (reserve) capital divided into shares (contributions) of founders (participants). Property created at the expense of contributions of founders (participants), as well as produced and acquired by a business partnership or company in the course of its activities, belongs to it by the right of ownership. Economic partnerships can be created in the form of a general partnership and limited partnership. A general partnership is a partnership, the participants of which, in accordance with the agreement concluded between them, are engaged in entrepreneurial activities on behalf of the partnership and are liable for its obligations with their property. A limited partnership (limited partnership) is a partnership in which, along with the participants who carry out entrepreneurial activities on behalf of the partnership and are liable for the obligations of the partnership with their property (general partners), there are one or more participants-contributors who bear the risk of losses associated with the activity partnerships, within the limits of the amounts of contributions made by them and do not take part in the implementation of entrepreneurial activities by the partnership. A limited liability company is established by one or more persons of the company, the authorized capital of which is divided into shares, certain constituent documents; participants in a limited liability company are not liable for its obligations and bear the risk of losses associated with the activities of the company, within the value of their contributions. An additional liability company is established by one or more persons of the company, the authorized capital of which is divided into shares, determined by the constituent documents; the participants in such a company bear joint and several subsidiary liability for its obligations with their property in the same multiple for all to the value of their contributions, determined by the constituent documents of the company. A joint stock company is a company whose authorized capital is divided into a certain number of shares. Members of a joint-stock company (shareholders) are not liable for its obligations and bear the risk of losses associated with the activities of the company, to the extent of the value of their shares. The law provides for open and closed joint-stock companies. An open joint stock company is a joint stock company whose members may alienate their shares without the consent of other shareholders. Such a joint-stock company conducts an open subscription for shares issued by it and their free sale. An open society annually publishes an annual report, a balance sheet, and a profit and loss statement for public information. A closed joint stock company is a joint stock company whose shares are distributed only among its participants (founders) or other predetermined circle of persons. Such a company is not entitled to conduct an open subscription for shares issued by it. A subsidiary business company is such a company if another company (main) or partnership, by virtue of the predominant participation in its authorized capital, or in accordance with the concluded agreement, has the ability to determine the decisions made by such a company. A dependent business company is recognized as such if another (predominant, participating) company has more than 20% of the voting shares of the joint-stock company or 25% authorized capital limited liability companies.

Production cooperative (artel) - a voluntary association of citizens on the basis of membership for joint production or other economic activities (production, processing, marketing of industrial and agricultural products, trade, consumer services, provision of other services), based on their personal labor and other participation and association its members (participants) of property share contributions. Founding document production cooperative- charter.

A unitary enterprise based on the right of economic management is created by decision of the authorized government agency or local government. The owner of the property of an enterprise based on the right of economic management is not liable for the obligations of the enterprise. A unitary enterprise based on the right of operational management is created on the basis of property located in federal property by decision of the Government of the Russian Federation. Another name for such an enterprise is a federal state enterprise. The Russian Federation bears subsidiary liability for the obligations of a state-owned enterprise if its property is insufficient; a state-owned enterprise may be reorganized or liquidated by decision of the Government of the Russian Federation.

3. Business combinations

In practice, types of associations have developed that differ depending on the goals of the association, the nature of economic relations between their participants, and the degree of independence of the enterprises included in the association. These are cartels, syndicates, pools, trusts, concerns, industrial holdings, financial groups.

Cartel is an association, as a rule, of enterprises of the same industry, involving a joint commercial activity, i.e. regulation of sales with the help of established quotas, commodity prices, terms of sale. The cartel is characterized by the presence of the following features:

The contractual nature of the association;

Preservation of the right of ownership of cartel participants to their enterprises and the economic, financial and legal independence provided by this;

Cooperative activity for the sale of products that can be distributed, albeit to a limited extent, to their production.

Syndicate - a kind of cartel agreement that involves the sale of the products of its participants through a single marketing body created in the form of a joint-stock company or a limited liability company. The members of the syndicate, like the cartel, retain their legal and commercial independence, and sometimes their own sales network, which is closely connected with the syndicate sales office or company.

Pools also belong to cartel-type associations. pool An association of entrepreneurs is called an association of entrepreneurs, providing for a special procedure for distributing the profits of its participants. The profits of the pool participants enter the “common pot”, and then are distributed among them in a predetermined proportion.

Trust is an association in which various enterprises previously owned by different entrepreneurs merge into a single production complex, losing their legal and economic independence. In a trust, all aspects of the economic activity of enterprises are united, and not just one side, as in a cartel or syndicate. The trust form is convenient for organizing combined production, i.e. association in one company of enterprises of different industries, either representing successive stages of processing raw materials, or playing an auxiliary role one in relation to the other.

Concern is an association of independent enterprises connected through a system of participation, personal unions, patent-licensing agreements, financing, close production cooperation.

A concern is usually an association of a production nature, which includes enterprises from different industries, depending on which concerns are in the nature of "vertical" or "horizontal" associations. Vertical association covers enterprises of various industries, manufacturing process which are interconnected (for example, mining, metallurgical and machine-building). Horizontal associations cover enterprises of different industries that are not related to each other.

Holding is a "holding" (parent, head) company, which, having a controlling stake in enterprises united in a single structure, ensures their management and control over their activities.

Holding structures are multifactorial complex formations that ensure the consistent integration of production and capital resources, the creation of large-scale differentiated industries focused on the development and implementation of the latest technical solutions, and the implementation of various investment programs.

4. Financial and industrial groups

The economy of any country is dominated by large economic complexes, represented by powerful industrial companies, which are often called financial and industrial groups(FIG).

FIG is an economic association of enterprises, institutions, organizations, credit and financial institutions and investment institutions, created with the aim of conducting joint coordinated activities.

FIG includes a stable grouping of various enterprises: industrial, trade, financial, including banking, insurance, investment institutions. In other words, FIG is a financial-industrial-trade complex, the constituent parts of which interact in order to achieve common strategic goals. In FIGs, relations of interdependence, division of labor and its cooperation are developing.

The most significant characteristics of FPG include the following:

1) integration of the links included in them not only through the union financial resources and capital, but also through a common managerial, pricing, technical, personnel policy;

2) the presence of a common strategy;

3) voluntary participation and preservation of the legal independence of participants;

4) the structure of FIGs allows solving many issues (including security-related problems) at a lower cost than on others large enterprises and in associations.

Financial-industrial groups can arise on the basis of the largest industrial or trading companies, whose influence and power provide them with access to the resources of credit and financial institutions, or be formed as a result of financial concentration around credit or banking organizations.

The need to create a FIG in the Russian Federation is determined by a number of factors:

The need to create a new investment system and the formation of integral structures capable of self-development;

The growth of financial capital, which is so far only a potential investor in production;

The presence of a serious structural and financial-investment crisis in industry, especially in the investment sphere;

The need to strengthen and update the existing technological chains and cooperation ties in the field of production.

Financial-industrial groups form a mixed economy, since they can also participate in state enterprises, the initial participation of the latter, along with the membership of a number of non-profit organizations (scientific, educational institutions) gives FIG the necessary reliability during the period of perestroika economic relations.

The process of formation of FIGs in Russia goes in several directions. So, for example, they are created on a voluntary basis on the basis of a contractual process and market forms of consolidation of blocks of shares, as well as in a directive way in the case of amalgamation of "state-owned" enterprises. At the same time, as a rule, a preliminary careful design of all relationships in such groups, the goals of their activities, and prospects is carried out. Other areas are associated with the integration of financial and industrial capital, economic entities that have arisen in practice. Financial and industrial groups are created, for example, in the process of privatization, in which banking capital actively participates, they develop on the basis of large industrial structures, as well as new structures that have emerged in the course of the formation of market relations.

Another way is connected with the possibility of forming a financial-industrial group on the basis of large economic structures, created at one time by decision of the President or the Government, such as Gazprom, Lukoil.

Universal scheme there is no formation of FIGs, but a number of general patterns can be noted. These include:

Widespread development of trust relationships within the group;

Purposeful concentration of ownership, including through cross-ownership of shares;

Long-term investment and property prospects based on a high level of project expertise;

A high degree of managerial autonomy and intercompany competition among group members in the implementation of projects;

Selective intervention of major shareholders when major problems arise;

Joint organization of product marketing in the face of fierce competition between vertical integration groups.

The legal basis for the formation of FIGs in Russia is the Federal Law "On Financial and Industrial Groups" of November 30, 1995, the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation "On the Creation of Financial and Industrial Groups in the Russian Federation" of December 5, 1993, the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation "On the Order conducting an examination of projects for the creation of FIGs" dated May 23, 1994 and "On the register of FIGs and requirements for the composition of their projects" dated June 19, 1994. State support for the formation and development of FIGs is carried out in accordance with the Program for Assistance in the Formation of FIGs of various ministries and departments, approved Government of the Russian Federation in January 1995

Examples of already established FIGs in the Russian Federation are the FIGs: Ural Plants, Ruskhim, Sokol, Jewels of the Urals, Siberia, etc.

In the process of formation of FIGs in Russia, they face a number of problems. Quite often, emerging formalized groups represent a mechanical association of technologically loosely connected enterprises. Often there is no real unified financial policy in the group that can take into account the various interests of the industrial and financial enterprises included in the group. The problems of taxation of financial-industrial groups have not been fully resolved, their issues state support.

When forming FIGs, one should be guided by a number of objective criteria - in particular, the principles of economic feasibility, the unity of the technological chain, etc. FIGs can become an effective tool for implementing the priorities of structural policy, development promising industries and industries, especially export-oriented, the implementation of the achievements of scientific and technological progress, environmental programs. PG allows you to win in the competition due to the fact that in its structure it is possible to create financial schemes that achieve such minimization of taxes and diversification of risks that cannot be achieved in any other way.