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A feature of cooperation agreements is the organization of the production of an object new technology together with a partner. Production and cooperation relations make it possible to make wider use of the advantages of progress, reduce production costs and increase the efficiency of production processes, establish long-term production and technical ties with leading industrial enterprises in this industry, and produce competitive products.
The objects of industrial cooperation can be technological processes, engineering products, automated systems management, etc. At the same time, there are three types of cooperation: subject (production of finished machines of one industry - intra-industry and production of machines from different industries - inter-sectoral), sweeping (production of parts, assemblies, assemblies), technological (performing individual technological processes).
In case of detailed cooperation, each partner carries out the final assembly at their enterprises, receiving the necessary components from the cooperating partner; or one of the cooperators organizes the assembly of the final product, receiving components and parts through cooperation and reimbursing the partner's costs with deliveries of the final product. Cooperation can also develop on the basis of the exchange of production programs within the framework of the full range, when certain types of products are manufactured by one or another partner, followed by the exchange of these products between partners.
The legal basis of industrial cooperation is an announcement (or contract) on the development of a new type of product, its cooperative production and agreed marketing, usually concluded for a 5-year period, and contracts for the sale of cooperative units and parts, as well as cooperative products.
4. Scientific and technical cooperation- accumulation financial resources various companies operating in the same business area or having an interest in a particular area, including public funds allocated for scientific and technical research and the development of new products. It is also considered as a form of trade, in particular patents and licenses, and acts as an independent object of a commercial transaction, when a license agreement is accompanied by agreements on the supply of equipment necessary for organizing production under a license, parts and components, components manufactured under a license, etc. (supply of equipment is provided for in more than 15% of license agreements), as well as as a supplement to the transaction for the sale of machinery and equipment, when the trade in patents, and most often in licenses and know-how, facilitates the use of the purchased equipment by the buyer, increasing the degree of comfort when making a deal.
An important factor for characterizing the "buyer-seller" relationship in the industrial market is the market structure of sellers and buyers, that is, their number and market share, which determines the possibilities of alternative buyers and sellers.
Thus, most European markets are highly structured systems, which means that a significant market share is distributed between big companies who actually control the entire market. The market is constantly evolving and over time becomes an increasingly structured system - the weak die and the strong strengthen their positions.
Figures of industrial markets in the competition use not always legal methods of collecting information - they are engaged in industrial espionage. Dr. Wade proposes a classification of sources of information:
173 Industrial cooperation 173 Proportional taxation 173 Prospectus 173 Simple monopoly 174 Simple clause in sales agreement 174 Protectionism 174 Promissory note protest 174 Minutes 174 Interest 174 Interest rate 174 Interest papers 174 Interest period 174 Interest risk 174 Marketing management process 174 Prof. it 174 Direct tax 174 Pool 174 Item 174
The most rapidly developing form of WT, which involves cooperation in the joint construction of large industrial facilities, requires significant capital investments in fixed assets, etc. Such transactions are often part of agreements on industrial cooperation. The exporting firm receives as compensation the products that are produced on the basis of the sold equipment and technologies. Therefore, the time lag between mutual deliveries is quite large, which implies the need to provide long-term loans. The total value of products supplied as compensation during the entire period of the contract equals or even exceeds the value of the original export
This form of V.T. involves both the exchange of goods and services, and the provision of opportunities to invest in exchange for various kinds of services and benefits. Most often, the area for concluding this type of transaction is the trade in expensive equipment, the supply of components and parts under agreements on industrial cooperation. The most important feature of this form of countertrade is the desire to use the capabilities of the largest marketing or intermediary companies to sell various goods of importing countries on world markets.
In accordance with the presence under socialism of two forms of public ownership of the means of production, state enterprises and cooperative enterprises (industrial cooperation, consumer cooperation and collective farms) are distinguished. These enterprises are of the same type in terms of socio-economic nature, although they have some differences. Thus, products produced by state enterprises are the property of the whole people, and those produced by a cooperative enterprise are the property of the collective of this enterprise.
Industrial cooperation - see Industrial cooperation.
Industrial cooperation is a modern universal form of organizing coordinated and (or) joint production with the participation of foreign partners of two or more countries - based on the distribution of production programs, the unity of commercial conditions for cooperation, the protection of foreign investments, etc.
Industrial cooperation is a new progressive direction. The enterprises of the CMEA countries have already concluded approximately 2,000 cooperation agreements with capitalist firms.
The development of investment cooperation and industrial cooperation contributes to the filling and diversification of mutual trade. In Russia, Swedish companies invest mainly in forestry, pulp and paper, electrical and chemical industries.
V promotion of mutually beneficial trade and industrial cooperation between small and medium enterprises of foreign countries, Moscow and other regions Russian Federation
Outsourcing is the result of building an effective company development strategy based on industrial cooperation and long-term mutually beneficial partnership. This is the philosophy and methodology of modern international business, naturally arising from the general trends of its development.
Considering the position of the state in relation to the footwear market, one cannot fail to note the problem of protecting the domestic manufacturer by increasing customs duties, including for sports shoes. On May 15, 1996, the Russian Government increased the customs tariff for shoes. Moreover, a preferential regime was introduced for the import of blanks for the production of shoes, which also had some Negative consequences. Thus, the government took the path of least resistance, although the experience of the world community shows that the restructuring of the industry, attraction of investments, including foreign ones, and industrial cooperation with experienced partners are much more promising. In addition, such an import regulation measure as an increase in the customs tariff for finished shoes will most affect the buyer, as the retail price of the goods will increase.
A document issued by the state to a private person (company) and providing recognition of his rights to the exclusive use of the invention for a period of due date. The owner of a patent may grant another person (company) the right to use the invention, receiving a material reward for this. This is usually done by granting (selling) a license and concluding a license agreement. Issues relating to the issuance of patents, the protection and exercise of the rights of patent owners are regulated by national legislation. In addition, international treaties are of great importance, the main of which are the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property of 1883 and the Patent Cooperation Treaty of 1970 (See "Paris Convention" [P 9]).
Japanese industry is strong in the mass production of products in large organizations, where the cooperation of workers is important, as well as in knowledge-intensive industries where high qualifications are required. I am fortunate that global markets are seeing growing demand for technology-intensive products such as steel and household appliances. The high growth rate was supported by the redistribution of labor resources. Back in 1950, 48% of all workers were employed in the extractive industries, and already in 1978 this share fell to 11%. The manufacturing industry, which now employs 35% of the workforce, has undergone structural changes. Before the war, the industry was textile, at present it is metallurgy, mechanical engineering and the chemical industry. These three sectors account for 50% of the employed in the manufacturing industry.
Another area where collaborative developments provide good results are thinking robots. There is an opportunity to divide the tasks between the project participants, the development of visual and tactile sensors and control of the robot through a computer, on the one hand, and the creation mechanical technology for the engine and transmission links of the robot - on the other. Here there is a similarity with the development of aircraft, which involves separate work on the creation of the engine, fuselage, control systems, etc., and which is often carried out on the basis of international cooperation. In the development of industrial robots, there are already many examples of joint activities of Japanese and American companies.
Previously, the problems of industrial cooperation between Japan and industrialized countries were considered. But there is also important task development of this type of cooperation with newly industrialized and developing countries.
In accordance with the established specialization and intra-production cooperation, the plan for the production of products in kind, established by the production association, is brought to the production units, independent enterprises that are part of the association. At the same time, the plan for the production of industrial products in physical terms to production units and independent enterprises subordinate to the production association also includes finished products and semi-finished products of their manufacture, intended for delivery within the association to other production units and independent enterprises that are part of the association.
INDUSTRIAL COOPERATION is a modern universal form of organizing coordinated and / or joint production with the participation of foreigners. partners of two or more countries, based on the distribution of production programs, the unity of commercial terms of cooperation, mutual guarantee of risks, protection of foreign investment and prom. secrets. PROPORTIONATE TAXATION - a system of taxation, in which shtTogovye rates are set as a single percentage of the taxpayer's income, regardless of its size. PROSPECT - the type of printed advertising accepted in world advertising practice, which is a colorful publication
TRANSACTIONS "OFFER" (offer transaction) - one of the forms of countertrade, which involves both the exchange of goods and services, and the provision of an opportunity to invest in exchange for various kinds of services and benefits. Most often, the area of \u200b\u200bsigning S. "o" becomes the trade in expensive military equipment, the supply of components and parts under agreements on industrial cooperation.
Production (industrial) cooperation is a form of long-term and stable relations between economic entities involved in the joint production of products based on the specialization of their production. International cooperation can be implemented in practice both through an agreement, that is, without creating any organizational structure, or through the creation of international economic associations. An example of international cooperation through a contract is the implementation of tolling operations in our country. Tallinn is a service for processing imported raw materials imported into the customs territory of Russia for further processing Russian enterprises into finished products exported outside the Russian Federation. Tolling falls under the customs regime of processing on the customs territory and is subject to taxation in the manner established by the letter of the Ministry of Finance of Russia dated April 25, 1997 No. 11-1-8 / 113 On some issues of taxation for internal and external tolling. One of the first tolling firms in the Russian Federation was Trans-SIS, backed by the transnational corporation Trans-World Metallo. A consortium (from the Latin convogpit - complicity, partnership) means a temporary voluntary association to solve specific problems. Having completed the task assigned to it, the consortium ceases its activities. The consortium is not a legal entity.
Statistics do not take into account many types of engineering and consulting services, training of foreign specialists, measures to implement license agreements and their evolution into industrial cooperation. Inaccuracies are also inevitable in the calculations that arise when comparing the volume of production or the gross national product with indicators of foreign trade statistics, since the former are calculated according to the value added in the processing process without taking into account the previously expended labor embodied in intermediate products, while foreign trade statistics are based on the full value of goods.
New effective forms of foreign economic relations include industrial cooperation and cooperation on a license basis. So, together with Finnish companies in the USSR, the production of household chemicals Ternol, Extropesol with a common trademark was launched. Together with the firms Montedison (Italy) and Salzgitter (Germany), it is envisaged to build in the USSR and third countries production facilities for polycarbonate and formic acid according to Soviet technology.
In accordance with the specific features of the industry, the composition of cost items is supplemented and, in some cases, reduced. So, for example, in some industry instructions, additional items such as Purchased products and semi-finished products are provided. This article is of great importance in the costs of machine-building enterprises, which, in the course of industrial intra-industrial cooperation, purchase products from other enterprises, process them or complete the manufactured products with them. The share of these costs in the cost of production machine-building enterprise is very large and, therefore, it is important to single out these costs in a separate article. In enterprises where specific gravity technological fuel is large, in the costs they allocate a costing stat
The feasibility study specifies the location of the enterprise, building and structure planned for design and construction, taking into account the schemes and projects of the district planning, justifies its production capacity (capacity, productivity, etc.), product range, provision of raw materials, semi-finished products and chemicals, labor, fuel, electricity and water, transport links, requirements for related sectors of the national economy and industry, cooperation with other manufacturing enterprises and the possibility of creating industrial hubs, the main technical, planning and construction solutions, the site for construction, as well as the cost of building or reconstructing an enterprise, buildings and structures are determined .
An example of complex, general economic, framework bilateral agreements is the so-called long-term agreements on trade, economic, industrial, scientific and technical cooperation, which determine its specific areas and forms of construction and reconstruction of industrial facilities, production and supply of equipment and other goods, purchase and sale of patents and licenses, exchange of scientific and technical information, joint research, secondment of specialists to provide technical services and training, industrial cooperation, joint venture, etc. To facilitate and oversee the implementation of the agreements, mixed commissions are usually set up from representatives of the parties with the status of paraorganizations (see 132).
But for many chemical enterprises, with the specialization of shops on a technological basis, sequential processing of semi-finished products from one shop to another is typical. This applies to many enterprises of the main chemical industry (nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers, acids, salts, etc.), enterprises of organic synthesis, for the production of plastics and products from them, chemical fibers, rubber products, varnish and paint materials, which are complexes of interconnected workshops with close (hard) ties (close cooperation).
The third group consists of already mastered industrial technologies, as well as those new technologies that are beginning to be widely included in production. These include the production of ferrous metals, automobiles, video recorders, personal computers. Here, cooperation in product development is possible, as well as purely production cooperation. As discussed in Chapter I, in industrialized countries, all kinds of these technologies (ultra-large-scale integrated circuits, fiber optic communications, thinking robots, amorphous materials, highly functional polymers, etc.) are
For example, enterprises of the nitrogen industry have shops for the production of ammonia and its processing (in the shop for nitric acid, ammonium nitrate, etc.). The enterprises of the aniline-dye industry are characterized by complex cooperation between workshops and the presence of a large number of semi-finished products, which are called semi-finished products at these plants. , improved technology and
In order for you to be able to freely navigate in the following material, we will define several important concepts. From the Introduction, you already know that the word cooperation literally means cooperation. Let us now define the concept of "industrial cooperation".
Let's agree on terms...
In the world economic literature, the term "industrial cooperation" is used in a narrow sense, by which they mean cooperation exclusively production activities, as well as in its broadest sense, including various areas economic activity enterprises:
- Scientific research,
- logistics,
- production process,
- sales of products,
- enterprise management, etc.
In a glossary of terms published by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) in 1983, industrial cooperation (the term "industrial cooperation" is equated to the term "industrial cooperation" in its broadest sense) is defined as "relationships between enterprises based on long-term community of interests".
What areas of activity can include industrial cooperation?
Industrial cooperation may include:
- granting licenses,
- setting up businesses or production lines;
- development of new types of technologies and provision of information related to these
- types of technologies;
- production,
- marketing,
- joint projects or joint application for a contract,
- activities/services aimed at ensuring the main production.
Obligations in whole or part of the obligations that arise in connection with the implementation of cooperation may be settled in kind (counter deliveries of similar goods or services).
What are the most important features of industrial cooperation?
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Most foreign economists believe that The most important features of industrial cooperation are:
At the same time, cooperative cooperation extends both to the production itself and for activities preceding the production process or related to it in some other way, for example, for the sale of finished products. |
Let's look at a few examples:
- For example, one enterprise purchased a batch of electric motors from another. Is it possible to speak of cooperation in this case?
- No, you can't: cooperation is one-time. - And if between these two enterprises there is an agreement on monthly deliveries of engines?
- yes, these relations are cooperation. - The company has entered into a contract with a certain company for periodic preventive maintenance computer technology(for example, once a week). Can these relations be called cooperation?
- Yes, these relations can be called cooperation.
Within the framework of the above concepts and definitions, we will continue to consider various forms and schemes of interaction between enterprises, in particular, production enterprises with each other and production with non-production ones. An important additional condition in this case will be only the focus (direct and/or indirect) of such cooperation on ensuring the release of marketable products.
reference material:
The economy of the state is conditionally divided into the following sectors:
| INDUSTRY | |
| Agriculture | |
| Forestry | |
| Construction | |
| Transport | |
| Connection | |
| Trade and catering | |
| Education | |
| Science and scientific service | |
| Finance, credit, insurance, pensions | |
| Public associations | |
| Other |
Accordingly, INDUSTRY consists of the following sub-sectors:
Each sub-sector also has its own internal division, etc.
Knowledge of industry division and links between individual industries can greatly facilitate your search for cooperation partners (depending on the type of activity of your company).
1.1. What does it mean to work in cooperation?
People have long come to the conclusion that it is best to work together: it makes no sense for everyone to be engaged in the production of everything necessary for life. It is much better when everyone does what he does best, and then the excess results of labor are exchanged for the results of the work of other similar producers. As a result, everyone gets access to any necessary goods and services. obviously more High Quality, than if everyone were engaged in the production of everything himself.
This process is called division of labor and is well understood in relation to individual specialists. However, the same principles can be successfully applied to enterprises: each enterprise begins to specialize in what it can do best, and everything it needs from what it does not produce, it buys, exchanging its products or services for the products of other highly specialized enterprises. This process is called industrial division of labor, and it is carried out on the basis of specializations each of the enterprises.
When the complexity of the product or the conditions of its production increases so much that no one enterprise can produce it alone, several enterprises agree to join forces. For example, to produce a car, it is necessary to bring together the efforts of hundreds of enterprises. Usually, in this case, some generic functions: extraction and processing of raw materials, production of components, transportation, assembly production, marketing, etc.
Distribution functions between individual enterprises in the process industrial production of some product is called industrial cooperation.
To work within the framework of cooperation means to increase business efficiency by taking advantage of specialization.
The main objectives of industrial cooperation are to:
- load most efficiently production capacity manufacturing enterprises orders;
- form rational economic ties by properly "attaching" consumers to suppliers;
- ensure a complete, timely and comprehensive supply finished products in accordance with the existing demand and available organizational and material and technical resources.
Consider this scheme:
Your company is fluent in the technology of production of bolts, screws and other fasteners. Who can become your consumer (except for household goods stores and, accordingly, do-it-yourself home lovers)? - Right! Any enterprise (especially an assembly one) for which your products are a necessary element of its technological chain (for example, the production of the same cars) can become your consumer. Suppose now that you have shown this manufacturer your products, they are quite satisfied with both the quality and the price you offered, and you have entered into a long-term agreement that your company undertakes to supply it with fasteners, and he, accordingly, undertakes to buy you have them.
What does such an agreement mean for you?
First of all, stability in the market, - something that is so often lacking, especially for start-ups. Is it beneficial for you? Certainly!
So you got acquainted with the first and one of the most important advantages of working within the framework of cooperation.
Now take a fresh look at the products and services that your company produces (or intends to produce) and think: what component production process maybe products that your company can do better than others (and therefore cheaper for a given quality)?
1.2. Benefits received by small and medium-sized enterprises from participation in cooperation.
Benefits of cooperation are numerous and appear in all aspects of industrial development. The main of these benefits for small and medium-sized enterprises are as follows:
- Growth of opportunities for the development of production.
- Stabilization of demand for products and services.
- More complete and efficient use of production capacity.
- Greater flexibility and quick adaptation to changing demand.
- Deepening specialization with increasing product quality.
- Optimization of the production process.
- Effective implementation and use of innovations.
- Spread among the employees of the enterprise of confidence in success, the spirit of entrepreneurship, new cultural values, which provides a significant improvement in the social microclimate and stability in the team.
Wherein:
The main advantage that small and medium-sized enterprises get from participation in cooperation is the reduction of their own costs due to the concentration of efforts and resources on one or a few technological processes.
We will talk more about the benefits of cooperation by considering specific forms cooperation in section 3 .
1.3. Some important aspects of the activity of the enterprise in terms of cooperation.
In the previous section, we briefly got acquainted with the benefits that an enterprise receives from working in a cooperative environment. However, close economic cooperation can also create whole line problems, moreover, of such a level that even the very possibility of working within the framework of cooperation is called into question.
Think about the questions below. Try to identify for yourself ways to solve the problems identified in them. Carefully consider whether the prospect of working within the framework of cooperation will be attractive to you after becoming familiar with these problems?
| 1. | Interaction within the framework of cooperation implies a much closer mutual penetration of the business of the parties involved in it than, for example, in the relationship of purchase and sale. For your partner will be (or may be) available information about the internal life of your enterprise, which is usually not visible when "looking from the outside." Both you and your enterprise for some time will become the object of close scrutiny by your partner (or partners). Are you ready for this? What will happen if after some time it turns out that your partner was not entirely conscientious? How much damage can this do to your business? |
| - material? - moral? - physical? |
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| 2 . | If you have an interesting opportunity to establish partnerships with an enterprise that is significantly larger than yours in terms of size and production capacity (for example, as a subcontractor), would you be interested in this prospect? If so, do you have a good idea of the consequences of such “unequal” relationships? |
| 3. | What share of your own resources are you ready to allocate to fulfill orders coming from your "big" partner? Are you going to supply the same products to other customers as well, or do you assume that the products manufactured for this customer will be unique? |
| 4. | Work for one main customer, especially if it is a large and stable industrial enterprise is always attractive. Such cooperation ensures, first of all, the stability of orders and, accordingly, the stability of income. However, what will happen if your main customer suddenly refuses to continue cooperation or significantly changes the conditions? How quickly and at what expense can you provide orders for the resources released as a result of such a development of events? (We will return to this issue in detail in section 4.2.1) |
| 5. | Working within the framework of cooperation imposes increased requirements on the participants in cooperation in terms of the quality of products (work performed) and strict observance of the rhythm of deliveries (production). Establishing work in accordance with the requirements of cooperation can entail not only an additional expenditure of your strength and energy, as the head (owner) of the business, but often significant financial costs. For example, for re-equipment (re-equipment) of production, the introduction of modern means and methods of logistics, staff training, certification, etc. Are you ready for these costs? |
Remember that when organizing cooperation, it is desirable to adhere to such forms of cooperation, which are based on the following principles:
- equal and long-term nature of relations between partners;
Foreign economic activity- a set of production and economic, organizational, economic and operational and commercial functions of export-oriented enterprises, taking into account the chosen foreign economic strategy, forms and methods of work in the foreign partner's market.
Kinds foreign economic activity:
- foreign trade activity;
- industrial cooperation;
- international investment cooperation;
- currency and financial-credit operations.
production cooperative(artel) is a voluntary association of citizens on the basis of membership for joint production or other economic activities (production, processing, marketing of industrial, agricultural and other products, performance of work, trade, consumer services, provision of other services), based on their personal labor and other participation and association by its members (participants) of property share contributions. law and founding documents production cooperative may provide for the participation of legal entities in its activities. A production cooperative is a commercial organization.
Industrial cooperation as part of the foreign economic activity of enterprises and firms, it is one of the forms of cooperation between foreign partners in various, but structurally related processes of the technological division of labor. Myself technological process division of labor means the distribution of its participants in the chain of creation and sale of products according to its main phases, from studying the needs in domestic and foreign markets to bringing it to end consumers.
Industrial cooperation is typical for homogeneous areas of production and circulation, for scientific, technical, investment and service areas, for example, for the manufacturing industry.
Consistency of actions of partners within the framework of industrial cooperation is achieved by:
- mutual planning of export and import-substituting products;
- forecasting and joint management scientific developments, providing them with the necessary equipment, instruments and materials, test benches and scientific and technical information;
- organization of the training process.
At the same time, the property of cooperators is not isolated, and cooperation is provided on a reimbursable basis and is built on the principle of direct ties between producers of homogeneous products.
Production cooperatives are part of the group foreign trade participants working on foreign market without intermediaries. To sell their products on the foreign market, they mainly attract their foreign partners from related enterprises and firms through coastal and border trade with the countries of Eastern Europe, Finland, Mongolia, China and the DPRK, most often resorting to barter operations. The foreign economic activity of production cooperatives is activated through the establishment of direct ties, compensatory and production cooperation, for example, with partners from the northwestern countries. For export-import operations they only occasionally use the services and facilities of the foreign economic organizations of the Federal Ministry. Currently production cooperatives Numerous unions and associations have been formed to protect their interests and facilitate the further development of foreign economic activity.
The social division of labor causes special production links between enterprises in various sectors of the national economy - cooperation. Depending on a number of factors, one can different kinds cooperation:
Short-term (temporary) cooperation occurs when its participants work together on some large-scale project, after completion of which the cooperation ends. Long-term (permanent) cooperation involves long-term cooperation on a contractual basis.
Regional cooperation is carried out between enterprises of the same region. Interregional cooperation covers the connections of enterprises in different regions, and international cooperation - enterprises of different states.
Sectoral cooperation implies ties within one industry, and intersectoral cooperation - ties between enterprises of different industries.
Horizontal cooperation occurs when enterprises of the same economic stage cooperate, for example, several retailers or wholesalers. Vertical cooperation unites enterprises of various economic levels, for example, a manufacturer - a wholesaler - a retailer.
Production cooperation is a form of communication between enterprises for the joint production of one product, main feature, which consists in the fact that when cooperating enterprises - subcontractors, participating jointly in the manufacture of one product, supply its individual components, parts or semi-finished products to the parent enterprise, which carries out the final assembly of the entire product.
The specific features of cooperative deliveries are that they can connect not any enterprises, but only those that, as a result of their specialization and the availability of free production capacities, are direct participants in a single production process for the manufacture of complex products, the final assembly of which is carried out by one of the cooperating enterprises. An important feature is that the subject of cooperative deliveries in industrial cooperation cannot be
raw materials, materials, fuel, and can only be semi-finished products.
Two types of production cooperation are usually distinguished: cooperation based on free production capacities; cooperation based on a certain specialization of enterprises.
Cooperation based on the use of free production capacities assumes that any enterprise with free production capacities, even if it is not directly technologically dependent on another enterprise, can supply the latter with semi-finished products and components in cooperation.
Cooperation based on the specialization of enterprises is economic ties between enterprises, which, due to their specialization, are in close production dependence on each other. This type of cooperation is subdivided into substantive, detailed and technological cooperation.
The tasks of industrial cooperation are diverse, the most important are the following:
The most complete use of the achievements of science and technology and, on the basis of this, the acceleration of scientific and technological progress;
Deepening specialization, increasing serialization and mass production, as well as the development of unification and standardization;
Purchasing cooperation is an association of consumers or resellers for the joint purchase of goods.
Production and marketing cooperation is usually seen as the result of a merger of production and marketing cooperation. Cooperation in this case manufactured products are the result of joint development and cooperation. In the future, joint marketing of the manufactured products will be organized.
A variety of production and marketing cooperation is trade as part of consortiums. The consortium is a temporary union of independent firms, the purpose of which may be various types of their coordinated entrepreneurial activity, most often for the joint struggle for obtaining orders and their joint implementation.
Compensatory transactions are widespread in foreign economic activity. The construction of enterprises with the attraction of foreign capital suggests that foreign partners may provide financial or commodity loans. Upon completion of construction, in order to repay the loan, these partners can be supplied with products manufactured at the constructed enterprise.
