The system of international economic relations in modern conditions. International economic relations. Forms of international economic relations. International trade and monetary relations

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Subjects of international economic relations

An analysis of scientific literature makes it possible to conclude that international (interstate) relations are relations that go beyond the borders of states and arise between them. These relations are regulated by the norms of international law.

International economic relations arise and are established, first of all, between states, as political forms functions of society, which express the political power of the economically dominant class or the entire people.

Those. International economic relations is a form of links between:

individual states.

States and international organizations.

between international organizations.

1. A large number of countries, international organizations that are subjects of the IER.

2. The complexity and nature of these relations is significantly influenced by the socio-political system of countries.

The most important forms of international economic relations include:

international trade in goods and services;

currency and credit relations.

· the movement of capital and foreign investment;

labor migration;

exchange in the field of science and technology;

· cross-country cooperation of production;

Many of the goods and services we consume are produced overseas. Free import and export is beneficial to citizens of all countries. Trade allows each country to specialize in the production of what it has achieved best results and provides each person with a richer choice of goods and services.

International trade is the exchange of goods and services between national economies. It originated in ancient times, but only in the XIX century. took the form of a world market, since almost all countries of the world are drawn into it.

International trade differs from domestic trade in that:

· economic resources (including labor, natural, material, financial) are unevenly distributed among different countries;

Each country uses its own currency;

international trade is more subject to political control.

In the structure of international trade, two main blocks should be distinguished:

1. Export (export) of goods means that they are sold on the foreign market.

2. When importing (importing) goods, the country acquires goods produced abroad.

Different countries participate in world trade to varying degrees. The main indicators characterizing the country's involvement in foreign economic relations are: the export quota, which shows the ratio of the value of exports to the value of the gross domestic product, and the volume of exports per capita of a given country.

The dynamics and structure of world trade depend on the location of the main factors of production between different countries, on the structure of world production. So, if in the XIX century. international exchange was dominated by raw materials, food and products light industry, then in modern conditions the share of manufactured goods, especially machinery and equipment, increased significantly. The exchange of components and spare parts is increasing, re-export is growing rapidly, for example, after the appropriate assembly and installation of units and machines. Currently, the scope of international exchange includes the achievements of scientific and technological revolution (trade in licenses and know-how). There is a rapid development of trade in technologically complex products. The objects of international trade currently also include design work, leasing (long-term rental of equipment), consulting services.

International trade is beneficial to any country.

First, imports expand the choice of goods and services that are not produced in the country, but that consumers would like to purchase. International trade makes it possible to more fully meet the growing needs of a person as a consumer.

Secondly, foreign firms, offering goods similar to domestic ones on the national market, thereby increase their supply, which leads to a decrease in their prices.

In addition to trade, one of the forms of international economic relations is credit and financial, expressed in the provision of loans and credits, in the export and import of capital. The USA, Great Britain, Germany, the Netherlands, Japan remain the main exporters of capital, with 80% going to developed countries.

Credit financial markets are a set of banks, organizations, stock exchanges through which the movement of world economic flows is carried out.

Features of global financial markets:

Scales.

No geographic boundaries.

Round-the-clock operations in the global financial markets.

Use of currencies of leading developed countries.

Access to the global financial market have 1-class banks and borrowers.

This market has a specific interest rate. As a result of competition, the following financial centers emerged: New York, London, Luxembourg, Frankfurt am Main, Singapore, Tokyo, and the Bahamas. international import export trade global

Financial centers are the centers of concentrated banks, credit and financial relations that carry out operations in the financial and credit markets.

Emergence of financial centers on the periphery: Singapore, Hong Kong, Panama, Bahamas. This is due to lower taxes, currency legislation without restrictions.

Offshore - these are the world's financial centers, in which banks carry out operations mainly with non-residents and in foreign currency for this state. Offshore banks are tax cover.

The world credit market is a sphere of market relations where the movement of money capital is carried out on the terms of repayment and payment of interest, and where the demand for loan capital is formed.

The world financial market is a part of the loan capital market, where the issue, purchase and sale of securities is carried out.

World loan capital can be divided into three parts:

World money market - operations are carried out here to provide a short-term loan for up to one year.

The world capital market - medium and long-term lending is carried out on it.

World financial market - issue and purchase and sale of securities is carried out.

Classical foreign loans - based on the principle of the unity of the place of borrowing and the unity of the currency.

At the end of the 50s. the euromarket has gradually formed - this is part of the loan capital market, on which banks carry out operations in the eurocurrency.

The international migration of capital or the export of capital is carried out in the following forms:

direct private investment;

government loans;

international loans financial institutions.

The main function of the export of capital is to ensure the functioning of the world commodity market through the organization of foreign branches and subsidiaries, a service department, a repair and consulting base.

Foreign investments are all types of investments of foreign investors in objects of entrepreneurial and other activities for the purpose of making a profit.

Direct investment is the acquisition of shares in a foreign enterprise that is largely owned or controlled by the investor. This is the most dynamic form of international economic relations. Such investments can be carried out in various forms - joint ventures, ownership of a controlling stake in a firm in the recipient country; opening of a branch, wholly owned by a transnational corporation.

Portfolio investments - lending or acquisition of shares in a foreign enterprise that is not owned and controlled by the investor, investments in the state and municipal securities market. Various forms of international credit can be classified according to several main features that characterize individual parties credit relations:

· by sources (domestic, foreign and mixed lending);

by purpose (commercial, financial, intermediate loans);

· by types (commodity, currency);

· by the currency of the loan (in the currency of the debtor country, in the currency of a third country, in international accounting currency units);

by terms (short, medium and long term).

To create a favorable investment climate, reliable protection of property rights, a fairly liberal economy, a developed market infrastructure, and preferential taxation are necessary. To attract investments and technologies to the most depressed regions, territories with a preferential taxation regime are being created - free economic zones (FEZs).

External labor migration is the voluntary movement of people outside the country in order to carry out paid labor activity.

Man is the most vulnerable of all objects moving from country to country. Migrants (“guest workers”, “campesinos”) are at great risk, their arrival in a new country causes concern to others, even those who are themselves migrants. A lot of dangers lie in wait for them, but the average gain is very large. If this were not so, migrants would not decide to live in a foreign state permanently or temporarily.

There are at least three types of non-market impact of migration:

obtaining knowledge of significant economic value - modern technology, artistic talents, a large share of the effect of this knowledge extends to other people;

overcrowding (may cause costs such as crime, conflict, excessive noise);

social conflicts.

Many countries (especially the US) have a policy of selecting immigrants who are allowed into the country. The rules are being revised to encourage "brain gain" AND limit the influx of unskilled individuals most prone to unemployment and social conflict.

An important form of international economic relations is scientific and technical cooperation expressed in the exchange of patents, licenses, joint research and development work.

International production cooperation, which consists in the specialization and international cooperation of enterprises, has received great development.

International economic cooperation is one of the main factors that influence today the level of the world process and the development of the economy of a particular country. There are 200 large and small independent states on the globe. Each of them pursues its own policy, creates its own economy, and at the same time enters into various international relations, in particular, economic ones.

In the process of international economic cooperation between states, between organizations and other participants, certain relations arise (strengthen or interrupted), which require an appropriate regulation.

The instrument is legal norms, the system of which constitutes the MEP - an independent branch of world law.

International economic law is the main regulatory regulator of relations that arise in the field of international economic cooperation.

The subjects of these relations can be international organizations - economic, etc.

These include at the macroeconomic level: individual countries and their subjects (including unrecognized states, for example, Abkhazia, the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic, etc.), international economic integration groups, large cities, TNCs, global corporations, etc.:

· at the microeconomic level: small and medium-sized enterprises, cooperatives, etc., as well as individuals (in particular, the so-called "shuttle traders" or "peddlers"), etc.;

· at the supranational level: international economic organizations and supranational institutions.

Transnational corporations (TNCs).

The modern world economy is characterized by a rapidly ongoing process of transnationalization. Transnational corporations (TNCs) are the main driving force in this process. They are business associations consisting of a parent company and foreign branches. The parent company controls the activities of the enterprises included in the association by owning shares (participation) in their capital. In foreign affiliates of TNCs, the share of the parent company - a resident of another country - usually accounts for more than 10% of the shares or their equivalent. At the turn of the XX-XXI centuries. there is an unprecedented range of external economic activity(international economic transactions), in which TNCs are traders (merchants), investors, distributors modern technologies and facilitators of international trade migration. They largely determine the dynamics and structure, the level of competitiveness in the global market for goods and services, as well as the international movement of capital and the transfer of technology (knowledge).

TNCs play a leading role in the internationalization of production, the process of expanding and deepening production links between enterprises is becoming more and more widespread. different countries.

TNCs are international in terms of the scope of their activities and national in terms of capital and the nature of control. They expand their power through direct investment in their overseas affiliates and enterprises.

World diasporas, large trans-regional associations and strategic alliances of countries, world cities, communes, provinces, etc.

a special role in the system. MEOs begin to play anthropostructures, i.e. close-knit groups and associations that use network forms of organization of activities and cultural policy for active participation in world processes. The most notable among them are, in particular, environmental organization Greenpeace, an anti-globalization organization. At the beginning of the 21st century, there are up to half a million such public organizations in the world.

International organizations are very numerous, any of them does not affect the economic and social life.

Organizations with a specific weight in economic relations:

Organizations that have their own powers or means: funds and therefore have the opportunity to influence both international and national, economic and financial development.

Organizations that are forums where governments can express their views, where a unity of approach is developed and appropriate policy recommendations are made in individual countries.

International organizations providing collection of information and publication of statistical data.

What unites these organizations: they all contribute to the development of communication and cooperation between countries.

International organizations fall into four categories:

I. World Organizations are organizations dedicated to dealing with world problems and established primarily immediately after the end of the Second World War.

II. Organizations created on the initiative of the West are organizations initiated by Western states and which unite developed countries with a market economy.

III. European organizations are organizations associated with European construction.

IV. Bodies for Regional or Bilateral Cooperation with Third World Countries and Eastern Europe are various departments for regional or bilateral cooperation.

World organizations are: organizations operating in the field of economics and monetary and financial relations fall within the sphere of influence of the UN. The activity of the UN itself in these areas is limited. In practice, it is completely replaced by UNCTAD (this is the UN conference on trade and development). Among the specialized organizations dependent on the UN, a very important role is played by the bodies created under the Bretton-Woods agreements and GATT, replacing the special UN agencies.

The UN is an international organization established on the basis of the voluntary union of efforts of sovereign states to maintain and strengthen peace and security, as well as to develop peaceful cooperation between states. The UN Charter was signed in 1945. The main bodies are the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of Justice and the Secretariat, which is headed by the UN Secretary General.

GATT - General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade - is a multilateral international agreement on the mutual granting of tariff preferences, concluded in 1947 by twenty-three countries. The purpose of the creation of GATT: the gradual elimination of various forms of discrimination in trade, the reduction customs tariffs, the exchange of quantitative import restrictions.

Now GATT is an international organization operating on the basis of a multilateral intergovernmental agreement, which contains the principles and rules of international trade that are binding on member countries. Effective since January 1, 1948. The GATT has a large number of intergovernmental bodies, commissions and secretariats. In 1989, the number of full members of the GATT - 97 countries, another 28 countries are de facto participants in the GATT, 20 - as observers. supreme body GATT is a session, and the operational-executive body is the council of representatives.

Russia is not a member of the GATT, however, in connection with the entry into the IMF and the IBRD, closer contacts with the GATT are inevitable and necessary, since the activities of the GATT, the IMF and the IBRD are largely interconnected.

The IMF is an intergovernmental organization that regulates monetary and credit relations between countries, and also provides credit resources in cases of currency difficulties. 178 countries are members of the IMF.

Tasks of the IMF:

Control the rules of currency behavior of countries. These rules are fixed in the Charter.

Provision of loans to countries - members of the Fund in case of violation of the balance of payments, repayment of external debts, negative balance of payments to stabilize the national currency.

The IMF is organized according to the AO principle, i.e. The capital of the fund is made up of contributions from the participating countries. The amount of the contribution depends on the quota and is expressed in special monetary units - SDRs, special drawing rights and US dollars. The quota is determined from the economic level of the country. The size of the quota also determines the number of votes. Voting is carried out according to the principle of weighted voting.

IBRD (World Bank) is an intergovernmental organization that provides long-term loans for the purpose of economic stimulation of the development of the bank's member countries. The members of this bank are 176 countries of the world. The bank operates under the control of developed countries. The condition for membership in the bank is membership in the IMF.

Main branches of IBRD:

International Finance Corporation, IFC - is engaged in lending to private businesses in developing countries.

International Development Association, IDA - established to provide financial assistance and issues soft loans for 35-40 years.

Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency, MIGA - Provides guarantees for obtaining loans from private banks. The bank itself provides loans to the most profitable projects.

OECD is an organization for economic cooperation and development. Now its members are 24 developed countries of the world. Purpose: coordination of economic, monetary policy, research work, development of economic forecasting for the development of OECD member countries. The Paris Club is an informal organization of industrialized creditor countries that deals with the regulation of external debts of developing countries. Bank for International Settlements, BIS - is the center of cooperation between the central banks of developed countries, i.e. coordinates the monetary policy of central banks.

The London Club is an informal organization of creditor countries that deal with the settlement of private external debts.

European Union, EU - includes 15 states of Western Europe. In the future, this union is expanding, the countries of Eastern (Poland) and Central Europe (Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia) are joining.

Russia has concluded an agreement on cooperation and partnership with the EU.

Bibliography

international economic trade

1. Belokrylova O.S., Mikhalkina E.V., Bannikova A.V., Agapov E.P. Social science. Rostov n/a: Phoenix, 2006.

2. Kasyanov V.V. Social science. Rostov n/a: Phoenix, 2007.

3. Kokhanovsky V.P., Matyash G.P., Yakovlev V.P., Zharov L.V. Philosophy for secondary and special educational institutions. Rostov n/a, 2008.

4. Kravchenko A.I. Social science. Moscow: Russian Word, 2006.

5. Kurbatov V.I. Social science. Rostov n/a: Phoenix, 2007.

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The following excerpt from the book International economic relations: lecture notes (N. I. Ronshina) provided by our book partner - the company LitRes.

Lecture No. 1. Basic concepts and problems of international economic relations

1. History of the International Economic Relations

The formation of international economic relations depends on the level of development of the productive forces. There was an exchange between primitive communities and tribal unions. Gradually, during the formation of nation-states, it was transformed into international trade. In the future, the world market appears, and with it other forms of international economic relations.

In the Ancient East in 4-3 thousand BC. e. international trade already existed. Goods were transported by caravans, by sea, by river transport. The exchange of goods for goods was widespread. Most often, the commodity structure of trade included linen and woolen fabrics, raw materials for them, metal and ceramic products, livestock, grain, precious metals and stones. In Egypt and in the territories subject to it, gold was mined, it was used to pay for goods. In the 7th century BC e. began minting coins from precious metals in the countries of Asia Minor. Such international economic relations existed before the conquests of the Romans and Alexander the Great in the 4th-1st centuries. BC e.

Trade in ancient Greece was conducted between city-states. Pretty soon there is a specialization of cities in the production of certain goods. This developed the growth of labor productivity and increased the opportunities for trade between cities. In the Mediterranean and Black Seas, Greek merchants played the main role in trade. With the beginning of minting coins by various states, the money change business began to actively develop, from which the first signs of banking were formed. During Hellenistic times, Greek culture, including trade and finance, was widespread in Asia and Africa.

The Roman Empire included a large number of territories, so trade between them was, in essence, international in nature. In addition, Rome had trade relations with Northern Europe, Asia and Africa. During the heyday, the number and names of manufactured goods greatly expanded. They were transported over vast distances by land and sea. Banking and money management developed. In trade began to use promissory notes and bills of exchange.

During feudal fragmentation, international trade in Europe was rather poorly developed. With the advent of centralized states (England, Spain, France, Russia), trade begins to grow. In the XII-XIV centuries. capitalist relations appear, they significantly increase the role of international economic relations. Trade was mainly conducted in the basins of the Mediterranean, Baltic and North Seas. Also through these areas there was trade with Eastern Europe, the Middle East and more remote areas. This trade practically did not differ from ancient trade in terms of routes and nomenclature of goods. Fairs played an important role. In order to ensure security and monopolization, merchants of large cities formed unions - guilds. After the discovery of America and the sea route to India, the importance of ocean trade increased. Europe imports coffee, cotton, sugar, spices, cocoa, gold and silver. The export of ceramic and metal products, fabrics, animals, weapons is increasing. A colonial system is being formed, subject peoples are subjected to cruel exploitation, and the slave trade is increasing.

The level of development of Russia's foreign trade was lower than in Western Europe. The reasons for this: geographical remoteness, cut off from the seas; the social factor is the feudal-serf system, the low development of capitalism. But in the XVI-XVII centuries. Russia exported wood, furs, hemp, tar, and imported luxury items, metal products. Russia, like other states at that time, adhered to a policy of protectionism.

In modern times (the middle of the 17th - the middle of the 20th centuries), the market-capitalist economy is spreading all over the world, and a world market is being formed. The socialist economy proved to be unviable. Until the beginning of the XX century. the colonial system became more and more strong, but later collapsed almost completely. Military-political factors had a significant impact on the development of international economic relations. The economy of world capitalism since the beginning of the 19th century. developed cyclically, from time to time there were economic and financial crises. In modern times, private joint-stock companies operating outside their own state have become subjects of international economic relations. In the 19th century international economic organizations appear, and in the 20th century. their role in interstate economic regulation is growing. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. trade leaders competed European countries(Great Britain and France, Spain and Holland). At the end of the XIX century. Great Britain and Germany fought for the right to be called the leading industrial and commercial power. At the same time, the United States of America and Japan are beginning to play the leading roles.

In the middle of the XIX century. capitalism began to actively develop in Russia, and its role in world politics and the economy increased. But the revolution of 1917 interrupted this process, and the role of Russia, and then the USSR, in the world economy changed radically.

2. Fundamentals of the theory of IER

The foundation of the theory of international trade is the principle of comparative advantage or comparative costs. This principle says that the most efficient use of the limited resources of the whole world and of an individual country will occur only if each country produces and exports those goods, the costs of which are relatively low in it. At the same time, it is more profitable for the country to refuse to produce goods for which its advantage is absolutely lower, as well as from those for which its costs are not much less than for others. The specialization of a country is determined by the most favorable combination of factors of production. There are the following production factors:

2) capital;

4) technology.

The presence of factors and their combination can change over time, therefore, the country's specialization and its foreign trade change.

It follows from this theory that artificial barriers to international trade based on specialization may reduce its benefits. These are the following obstacles: import duties, non-tariff barriers, quotas. All of them are introduced by the states. Export restrictions are also theoretically undesirable. However, many countries are taking such measures, combining them in various ways. Duties significantly replenish the state budget, besides, their collection is relatively easy. By restricting imports, the state supports weak, uncompetitive sectors of the national economy. Export subsidies also help. If imports crowd out national producers and reduce the number of jobs, the state also restricts it.

The difference between international trade and domestic trade is that one national currency is often exchanged for another. Commercial banks usually take part in this process. If the goods are exported, payment for them can be made in the currency of the exporting country, the importing country or in the currency of a third country. The payment is considered made if the money for the goods is credited to the exporter's bank account. If the importer makes a payment in the currency of the exporting country or a third country, then he buys this currency from his bank, giving his national currency in return. If he pays for the goods in his own currency, it goes to the exporter's account in a foreign bank. Since he needs the national currency, he sells money from his foreign bank account for his own currency. In all these cases there is an exchange of currencies. The ratio of this exchange is called the exchange rate or exchange rate. Devaluation (depreciation of the national currency) is beneficial for exporters and can stimulate the export sectors of the economy. It is unprofitable for importers and can reduce the import of goods from abroad. The impact of the exchange rate on foreign trade and other forms of international economic relations depends on the elasticity of economic quantities (imports, exports, capital transfers), that is, on the magnitude of their response to a change in the exchange rate.

The position of the international finance of the state depends on the monetary system and the changes taking place in it. The state influences international finance countries through general macroeconomic policy, in particular through monetary policy. Among the instruments of monetary policy, there are discount policy (changes in loan interest rates at which the central bank lends to commercial banks) and foreign exchange interventions (purchase or sale of foreign currency in the market by the central bank). The International Monetary Fund is the main body of international cooperation in the field of establishing and regulating the exchange rate.

3. International division of factors of production

Division of labor- this is the distribution of various types of labor activity between states, industries, industries, people. Division of labor and specialization These are the most important factors for economic progress and productivity growth. From the division of labor follows the exchange of products, and from this comes cooperation that is beneficial to the entire population - cooperation.

In the territories of different countries there is a territorial division of labor. For example, some regions develop industrial production more, others - agriculture. International specialization and cooperation follow from the international division of labor. Political conditions play an important role in the development of these processes.

The international division of capital is expressed in the following features. In developed countries, a large amount of money capital accumulates. In various forms, it is exported abroad. On the other hand, these same countries have the largest stock of real capital in the form of equipment, buildings, inventories, etc. Developing countries are characterized by a low rate of accumulation and a limited stock of accumulated real capital.

The technology factor is becoming increasingly important. The development of computer technology in the United States ensures their superiority in the world market. Thanks to the ability to assimilate foreign technologies, Japan and South Korea were able to quickly take one of the leading places in the world market.

The international mobility of factors of production is not infinite. This affects the direction of international trade flows and the specialization of countries. But in Lately this mobility has increased significantly and continues to grow. It arises in the global migration of labor force of different qualifications. The huge increase in international financial flows speaks of increasing capital mobility. The development of minerals, the general development of land, and so on, indicate a certain mobility of the factor of production "land". Scientific and technical knowledge is also actively transferred through patents, licenses, sale of know-how and other ways. The reasons for mobility restrictions may be natural or may depend on the policy of the country.

It is believed that at the turn of the XIX and XX centuries. completed the formation of the world market. The world market is a system of permanent commodity-money relations between countries based on the international division of labor, specialization and cooperation. The main feature of the world market is international trade. The world market optimizes the use of factors of production and excludes the most inefficient producers. However, the world market also contributes to the persistence of underdevelopment in some regions of the world.

World economy ( world economy) is a set of national economies interconnected by international trade and the movement of factors of production. main feature of the world economy is openness, the increasing orientation of the prevailing number of countries of the world towards economic cooperation.

In the world economy, there is a tendency to reduce the importance of the factors of production "land" and "labor" and to increase the importance of the factors "technology" and "capital". This is very important for Russia, as it is experiencing an economic crisis, the causes of which, in particular, are the decline in investment and the decrease in the development and implementation of new technologies.

4. Significance of IER today

The simplest and most commonly used measure of the intensity of ties in the world and for individual countries and regions is the export quota (the ratio of the value of exports to GDP). The intensity of international economic relations increased significantly in the second half of the 20th century.

Factors affecting the increase in the role of international economic relations:

1) countries and territories that previously did not participate much in the international division of labor are involved in the world economy;

2) the varieties of goods and services manufactured in different regions are significantly increasing;

3) the lifestyle of people is changing, especially in industrialized countries. People are getting used to the consumption of goods and services from all over the world, to tourism, education, work and treatment in other countries, more sophisticated means of transport, financial settlements, telecommunications are used;

4) the predominance of the joint-stock form of enterprises, the formation of a global financial infrastructure favor the colossal movements of capital. This is further facilitated by the growth of transnational corporations;

5) the zone of the market economy is expanding, while the non-market economy is shrinking. External openness of the economy is increasingly becoming the norm;

6) liberalization of international economic relations, free movement of goods, labor, capital, technology also increases the openness of national economies. The scope of protectionism is shrinking;

7) world integration accelerates the advent of a single economic space, increases the specialization and cooperation of national economies. The confrontation between the capitalist and socialist systems and the Cold War have long been a counteracting factor. The member countries of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA), headed by the USSR, formed both a military-political and trade-economic bloc. In it, relations between countries were determined to a small extent by the economy, and external relations were minimal. They almost did not allow foreign direct investment in their economy. Western countries, led by the United States, used restrictions on economic ties to fight the USSR. The massive introduction of post-socialist countries into the world economy causes them difficulties, the reasons for which are the former closed economy, intense competition between countries, etc.

Huge gap in levels economic development industrial and former colonial countries also limits the development of international economic relations. The economies of many developing countries are mainly dependent on the export of a very small number (one or two) of products Agriculture or minerals. This increases the instability of the economy and does not develop its inferior structure. Such countries have very limited demand for foreign goods.

Simultaneously with the increase in the openness of economies, various restrictions and barriers created by states remain, and sometimes increase. For poor countries, these restrictions are justified and often inevitable, since without the protection of national industry, the development of a modern economy is impossible.

Negative influence The military-political situation may have an impact on the development of market relations. The supply of arms may interfere with the normal development of international economic relations. Often there is an internationally agreed total or partial economic blockade (Libya, Iraq, Yugoslavia) or unilateral measures (US against Cuba, China against Taiwan).

Economic and financial crises also have an extremely negative impact on international economic relations.

The influence of international economic relations on the development of the world economy is constantly growing. The rapid growth of the national wealth of most countries after the Second World War is largely associated with the development of international economic relations. The highest growth rates are characteristic of countries with economies with a high level of export development, such as Japan, China, the newly industrialized countries of Asia (Thailand, South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, Malaysia, etc.). These same countries, as well as some countries in Latin America, actively used the inflow of foreign capital to accelerate growth.

Among the countries exporting minerals, due to the high constant demand for oil and natural gas, the oil-producing countries are the most successful.

Foreign tourism plays an important role in the economy of countries such as Greece, Spain, Egypt, Turkey and others. For many island nations, tourism plays a critical role in economic growth. Some of these countries and territories have also become centers of offshore business for firms and banks in other countries.

5. MEO forms and their participants

Participants in international economic relations: individuals, enterprises (firms) and non-profit organizations, states (governments and their bodies), international organizations. Forms of international economic relations: international trade in goods, trade in services, movement of capital, labor migration, technology exchange.

Individuals buy foreign goods and services, exchange one currency for another, and so on, so they are participants in international economic relations. An increasing number of people around the world are becoming them. However, many people in the poorest countries cannot participate in this process.

In modern business, a collective type of important decision-making is common. But there are a small number of people who have a significant impact on the world economy through their personal decisions and actions. These include the owners and top managers of the largest transnational corporations (TNCs) and financial institutions.

Hundreds of thousands of firms with different forms of ownership take part in international economic relations, but TNCs play an increasingly significant role in them - joint-stock economic complexes that are engaged in production and other activities in many countries. Foreign direct investments in modern conditions are primarily economic objects owned by TNCs. They create international production, with specialization and cooperation taking place between enterprises in different countries belonging to the same firm.

Most of the largest banks and insurance companies in developed countries are transnational in nature, with branches in many countries. Investment funds are also referred to as transnational financial institutions. They manage the finances individuals, firms and organizations, investing them in securities and other assets in different countries. These financial institutions provide significant mobility of money capital around the world. Consequently, the efficiency of the world economy is increasing, but factors of exacerbation of financial and economic crises are being created.

Often, governments are direct participants in international economic relations as borrowers in international financial markets, exporters and importers of goods, etc. The issue of securities abroad and bank borrowings are also carried out by regional and local authorities. But even more important for the world economy is the fact that the subjects of international economic relations are countries that are nation states and national economies with their own institutions, laws, currency, economic policy. The regulation of international economic relations by states has a major impact on them. International economic organizations are classified according to different criteria:

1) by country coverage- worldwide and regional. The former include most of the UN bodies, the International Monetary Fund, etc. Among the latter, the main role is played by the bodies of economic integration, especially in Western Europe;

2) by composition of participants (members)- interstate (intergovernmental) and non-state (for example, the International Cooperative Alliance);

3) by field of activity– trade (World Trade Organization), finance (World Bank Group), agriculture (European Livestock Association), communications (Universal Postal Union), etc.;

4) by the nature of the activity. Some organizations provide gratuitous or other financial support to governments, enterprises, public associations. These are interstate banks (World Bank Group, European Bank for Reconstruction and Development and other regional banks). Other organizations are involved international regulation certain areas of the world economy (World Trade Organization, many regional integration bodies). An essential role is played by organizations in charge of coordination of various kinds international standards, patents, regulations, copyrights, procedures, etc.

Economic aspects occupy one of the leading places in the activities of military-political organizations (primarily NATO). Also, many sports, scientific, professional, cultural and other organizations are engaged in economic activities in the world market.

6. Economic globalization

Globalization is the worldwide dependence of countries, enterprises and people among themselves in an open system of political, financial, economic and cultural ties based on modern information and communication technologies. Economic globalization is the most important part of this process. Globalization is not a completed process, it develops, experiencing contradictions and difficulties.

The level of globalization of the economy depends on the level of development of productive forces, modern technologies. But often the concept of "globalization" is perceived as an ideology imposed by Western countries led by the United States. A significant number of people in poor countries do not see the benefits of globalization.

Human problems and globalization are interconnected. These are military-political, scientific-technical, financial-economic, environmental, demographic problems, the fight against high mortality, hunger, poverty in developing countries and other problems.

To address these global problems States should join forces. This happens due to the activities of existing and creation of new international organizations, bilateral and multilateral agreements, etc.

Recently, it has become clear to mankind that the openness of societies and economies is necessary not only for progress, but also for survival. But in modern world yet there are nationalism, extremism and other problems. They largely hinder the development of international economic relations. The processes of globalization do not affect a huge part of the world's population in backward countries. Nevertheless, globalization is the main trend in the development of today's world, its economy and international economic relations.

Market globalization- this is the free international movement of services, goods and mobile factors of production with the formation of prices justified by competition on a global scale (for example, the oil market). The globalization of markets contributes to a high level of efficiency in production and circulation.

IN last years there is a globalization of financial markets, i.e. capital markets in its monetary form. This process requires liberalization, that is, the abolition of restrictions on the movement of capital in its main forms. And to ensure almost instantaneous transfer Money the system of global telecommunications is used. Financial markets include: currency, credit and stock (securities) markets.

Cash assets are sold in two ways:

1) with the immediate transfer of goods and payment (cash transactions);

2) urgent (forward or futures) transactions, when the execution of the transaction relates to a certain period in the future and this delay is taken into account in the price. Financial markets create especially great opportunities for speculation, that is, for transactions whose purpose is not to acquire a given asset for possession, but to extract short-term profits by reselling at a better price. Speculation can take many different forms. Speculation greatly increases the inherent instability of global financial markets.

In the second half of the XX century. world economy and scientific and technological progress grew rapidly. The cyclical nature of development typical of a market-capitalist economy was rather weakly expressed.

But at the end of the XX century. the world economy was under threat due to financial crises in countries with an average level of development (Russia, Mexico, Argentina, Brazil, Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, South Korea). These crises were the collapse stock market, devaluation of currencies, increased inflation, numerous bankruptcies of banks and firms. The causes of the crises were both external and internal. But they would not be so large-scale if the countries did not have significant international debt, the liberalization of financial flows and trade, and large global capital flows.

The consequence of these crises was a slowdown in economic growth and, in many of the affected countries, a decline in production. From countries with an average level of development, crises through numerous links in international economic relations (non-payments of debts, reduction in imports, etc.) reached highly developed states. Japan was particularly hard hit. The threat of such crises remains relevant in the 21st century. Their prevention or at least mitigation is one of the major tasks in the field of international economic cooperation.

7. Participation of Russia in the IEO

Russia's share in world trade is less than its share in world production of goods and services. This is evidenced by the fact that Russia's export quota is much lower than the global figure. In terms of exports in 2003, Russia ranked 17th in the world (1.7%). Even in the USSR, the economy was skewed in the structure of exports towards a small amount of raw materials, especially energy. In post-Soviet Russia, this has intensified even more. Russia exports very little industrial and consumer goods, machinery and equipment. One of the reasons for this is the low competitiveness of Russian industrial goods on the world market. Food and consumer goods occupy a significant place in Russian imports, the share of industrial equipment is also very low.

Russia's participation in global financial flows can hardly be called normal. In the 1990s external state and non-state debt increased rapidly. At the same time, huge amounts of private capital "leaked" from Russia for economic and other reasons. Russia needed foreign direct investment to bring new technology with it, but it came in small amounts. The legal export of capital from Russia in the form of direct investment is also extremely small.

However, Russia has favorable factors of production: a skilled, organized and low-paid labor force; the richest natural resources; high scientific and technical potential.

The reasons that these favorable factors still do not have a positive impact on the economy and international economic relations of Russia are as follows:

1) having destroyed the planned socialist economy, Russia was unable to create an effective private capitalist economic system in its place;

2) the collapse of intra-union integration ties is being heavily replaced by a new system of international division of labor in the post-Soviet space;

3) moving away from the militarized economy of this model while maintaining efficient sectors of military production is also a difficult process;

4) as well as the flight of capital, the "brain drain" is of great importance - the emigration of personal carriers of scientific and technological progress.

Russia needs the so-called reindustrialization, i.e., the creation of a modern economy based on the introduction advanced technologies in all sectors of the economy and spheres of life. The development of healthier international economic relations can accompany Russia's economic recovery.

In our time, there are rarely countries that would not depend on world development in economic, political and cultural terms. In particular, the world economy and economic relations at the global level affect the economy of each state separately. The only difference lies in the extent to which one or another power is able to take timely measures to ensure that its own foreign exchange market and labor market do not suffer from external influence.

What is the world economy?

The world (or international) economy is understood as a global economic system that has many levels and unites the economies of different countries of the world. This unification takes place on the basis of the international division of labor with the help of a system where interethnic economic relations play the main role.

More briefly, the world economy is defined as a set of economies of different peoples, as well as non-state structures that are united by international relations.

The concept of an international economy appeared due to the fact that an international division of labor arose. Experts note that this entailed, on the one hand, the distribution of production between different powers, and on the other, the unification of specializations. At the same time, economic relations between countries have been and remain to this day.

The concept of economic relations

In a general sense, economic relations are understood as such relations between people that develop in the process of exchanging and consuming goods, production, distribution of goods, etc. If we are talking about international economic relations, then here "hand in hand" go the international economy and international economic relations (IEO).

As for the latter, both transnational corporations, international entities of the world economy, as well as entire countries, regions or regional groupings can be involved in the process of relations in the economic sphere.

MEO forms

Economists have identified the following main forms of international economic relations:

international cooperation in the production of goods;
exchange of scientific and technical achievements;
international specialization of production and works of a scientific and technical nature;
trading internationally;
relations between states, among which the most important are monetary, information, credit;
cooperation of powers in relation to the solution of global problems.

International economic relations are dependent on the international division of labor (MRT). Proceeding from this, the main forms and directions of MEO are determined by the fact that this division of labor is gradually moving to a new level and acquiring a new type.

Types of international division of labor

It should be noted that there is a significant difference between different types of MRI. So, the general type implies trade and exchange of goods of manufacturing and extractive industries between specific states. If the MRI is of a private nature, then this leads to the fact that trade will already prevail. finished goods different industries. Separately, the division of labor of a single type is singled out: it means specialization at certain stages of production and stages of the technological cycle. Thus, conditions are created for a more dynamic growth of trade volumes and the exchange of products at the world level.

Monetary and credit relations

The leader among the various forms of international relations in the field of economics is considered to be monetary and financial or monetary and credit relations. What are they? These are relations of a financial nature that develop between subjects of different powers. In other words, these economic relations may arise between residents and non-residents.

There are also cases when monetary and credit relations develop between subjects of law of the same state. Here we are talking about currency values, to which the right of ownership is transferred. In addition, other property rights may be associated with foreign exchange transactions.

international trade

At the moment, almost all countries of the world take part in foreign trade, that is, they are directly related to the system of international commodity-money relations. In simple words, international trade is understood as the totality of foreign trade of different states.

For the first time, Italian economists started talking about trade at the world level in the 12th century. The development of trade is the most important factor in the development of the entire world economy. There is an opinion that participation in trade provides its participants with a lot of advantages. One of the most important advantages is that international competition arises, which leads to the need to improve enterprises and products.

IEO problems

According to experts, today the following main problems of economic relations can be distinguished:

creation of international transport corridors;
creation of free economic zones;
problems of the Internet economy.

An international transport corridor is understood as a transport system that concentrates on general directions different kinds transport, including road, rail, sea, pipeline, and telecommunications. Such transport corridors contribute to the more active development of world economic and international economic relations.

Free economic zones (or special economic zones) are certain territories that have preferential economic conditions for local and foreign entrepreneurs. Such zones are created with the aim of developing the state as a whole or a specific territory separately, where foreign trade, social, general economic and regional tasks are solved.

As for the Internet economy, new economic relations are developing here, which are aimed at solving many global problems. Here, questions are raised about the security of these business entities in the global Internet space, about the possibility of facilitating trade and the exchange of products.

International Economic Relations (IER)- economic relations between states, regional groupings, transnational corporations and other subjects of the world economy. They include monetary, financial, trade, production, labor and other relations. The leading form of international economic relations is monetary and financial relations. In the modern world, globalization and regionalization of international economic relations are especially relevant. Dominant role in establishing a global economic order belongs to transnational capital and international institutions, among which an important role belongs to the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). As a result of the international division of labor, the world poles of economic and technological development(North American, Western European and Asia-Pacific). Among actual problems international economic relations, the problems of creating free economic zones, international transport corridors and the Internet economy are highlighted.

MEO forms

There are the following forms of MEO:

international specialization of production and scientific and technical work;
exchange of scientific and technical results;
international production cooperation;
information, monetary and financial and credit relations between countries;
the movement of capital and labor;
activities of international economic organizations, economic cooperation in solving global problems.

Since the MER is based on the international division of labor, the significance and correlation of the main forms and directions of the MER is determined by the deepening of the MRI and the transition to its higher types. In this regard, the following should be noted: The general type of MRI predetermines inter-sectoral international exchange, in particular, goods of the extractive and manufacturing industries of individual countries. The private division of labor leads to the development and predominance of international trade in finished products of various industries and industries, including intra-industry. Finally, a single type of MRI means specialization at individual stages of production (assemblies, parts, semi-finished products, etc.) and stages of the technological cycle (re-distribution), as well as within the framework of scientific, technical, design and technological developments and even the investment process. This creates the prerequisites for an accelerated growth in capacity international market, sustainable expansion of the IEO.

World economy

Generally world economy can be defined as a set of national economies and non-state structures united by international relations. World economy arose thanks to the international division of labor, which entailed both the division of production (that is, international specialization) and its unification - cooperation.

international trade

International trade is a system of international commodity-money relations, consisting of foreign trade of all countries of the world. International trade arose in the process of the birth of the world market in the XVI-XVIII centuries. Its development is one of the important factors in the development of the world economy of the New Age. The term international trade was first used in the 12th century by the Italian economist Antonio Margaretti, the author of the economic treatise “The Power of the Masses in Northern Italy”.

Monetary and credit international relations

Monetary and credit relations - financial relations between subjects of different countries, i.e. residents and non-residents, or relations between subjects of the law of one country, the subject of which is the transfer of ownership of currency values and other property rights associated with currency values.

Bretton Woods system

Bretton Woods system, Bretton Woods agreement Bretton Woods system) - an international system for organizing monetary relations and trade settlements, established as a result of the Bretton Woods Conference (from July 1 to July 22). Named after the Bretton Woods resort (eng. Bretton Woods listen)) in New Hampshire, United States. The conference marked the beginning of organizations such as the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The US dollar has become one of the types of world money, along with gold. It was a transitional stage from the gold exchange standard to Jamaican system, which establishes the balance of supply and demand for currencies through free trade in them.

GATT

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, GATT , GATT) is an international agreement concluded in the year to restore the economy after World War II, which for almost 50 years actually performed the functions of an international organization (now the World Trade Organization). The main purpose of GATT is to reduce barriers to international trade. This was achieved by lowering tariff barriers, quantitative restrictions (import quota) and trade subsidies through various side agreements. GATT is an agreement, not an organization. Initially, GATT was supposed to be transformed into a full-fledged international organization, such as the World Bank or the World Trade Organization (WTO). However, the agreement was not ratified and remained only an agreement. The functions of GATT were taken over by the World Trade Organization, which was founded by the last round of GATT negotiations in the early 1990s. The history of GATT is roughly divided into three phases - the first, from 1947 to the Torquay Round (focused on which goods are subject to regulation and the freezing of existing tariffs); the second, from 1959 to 1979, included three rounds (tariff reductions) and the third, the Uruguay Round from 1986 to 1994 (expansion of the GATT to such new areas as intellectual property, services, capital, and agriculture; the birth of the WTO).

Notes

Links

Dergachev V. A. International economic relations. - M.: UNITY-DANA, 2005. ISBN 5-238-00863-5
International economic relations. Ed. V. E. Rybalkina. - M.: UNITI-DANA, 2005.

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In the course of their activities in the world economic arena, the subjects of the world economy enter into certain economic relations - international economic relations - IEO, which represent in a broad sense a system of economic relations between the national economies of individual countries, represented by various economic entities, as well as international economic organizations and financial centers.

These relations are the subject of a special training course - "International Economic Relations". Therefore, in this textbook we will briefly consider them in terms of the structure of the modern world economy.

The development of international economic relations depends on a number of factors:

A) natural (natural-climatic, demographic, etc.). For example, to become a major exporter of oil or natural gas, a country must have the appropriate reserves of these types of natural resources. Despite all the scientific and technological achievements of recent decades, highly productive agriculture in various countries and, accordingly, dynamic exports of agricultural products are nevertheless based on favorable natural and climatic conditions. It is impossible not to take into account the significant role that demographic factors play in the world economy;
b) acquired (industrial, scientific and technical, political, social, national-ethnic, religious). The huge role of general political factors in the development of international economic relations is obvious, when, for example, there is a "thaw" in the relations between the countries of the world or, on the contrary, a sharp aggravation (up to military conflicts). Scientific, technical and production factors play a decisive role in the development of almost all forms of modern international economic relations. The role of social, national-ethnic and even religious factors (for example, interfaith relations both in the interaction of different countries and within individual states, etc.) is also extremely important.

At the beginning of the XXI century. to the main forms of international economic relations were:

■ international trade in goods;

■ international trade in services;

■ international specialization and production cooperation - ISCO;

■ international scientific and technical cooperation - ISTC and exchange of scientific and technical results;

■ international movement of capital, international monetary and financial relations;

■ international labor movement;

■ international information exchange;

■ activities of international economic organizations and cooperation in solving global problems.

One of the traditional forms of international economic relations is international trade in goods, which originated and developed many centuries ago, in ancient civilizations and states of the world.

Over time, international trade is supplemented by other forms of international economic relations, many of which were developed already in the 20th - early 21st centuries.

Sometimes the forms of international economic relations also include international economic integration (see ch. 15). The authors do not share this point of view, believing that international economic integration is a synthetic process that includes almost all currently existing forms of international economic relations (from international trade in goods and services to international information exchange).

In modern conditions, various forms of MER are closely interconnected and actively interact with each other. This growing interconnectedness and intense interpenetration allow us to consider the IER as an emerging and developing system of international economic relations.

We think on our own. In what forms of international economic relations is the consistency of modern international relations manifested most clearly, and in what forms less clearly? Why is this happening?

The modern world economy is a market economy. Therefore, the question arises of how its main provisions are implemented in the system of the modern world economy. In the classical scheme of a market economy, these include: the subjects of the relationships that are formed in this case (sellers and buyers); determining impact on the development of market relations on the part of supply and demand; development of competition.

All these general provisions market economies also take place in the system of the modern world economy, however, at the same time, its certain (in some cases, very significant) specificity is manifested. Thus, in the sphere of the world economy, the multiplicity of subjects participating in market relations is sharply increasing, while the freedom (invariance) of choice and partners (countries and their unions (groupings), international organizations, corporate business, individuals) and the forms of economic relations. The same pattern is manifested in the action of supply and demand in the world economy. Finally, the scope of competition is also expanding significantly, and international competition itself is becoming more intense and fierce compared to competition within the national economy.

However, the reality of the modern world economy is such that a much higher monopolization (oligopolization) of economic relations is also manifested here. At the same time, few examples of free (pure) competition can be seen, since the rules of the game in the world economy at the beginning of the 21st century. determine the strongest players - the leading countries of the world, the largest transnational corporations and banks with a global scale of activity, the most authoritative international organizations. In the sphere of the world economy, in comparison with the national economies of individual countries, political factors have a more significant impact. The role of states, their institutions and unions in the world economy, despite a certain liberalization of economic relations in recent years, remains very significant. Therefore, in the subsequent sections of this textbook, much attention will be paid to the place and role of individual leading countries, their groupings and unions in the modern world economy.

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What is the world economy?

The concept of economic relations

MEO forms

Types of international division of labor

Monetary and credit relations

international trade

IEO problems

MEO forms

World economy

international trade

Monetary and credit international relations

Bretton Woods system

GATT

Notes

Links

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