In the tropical forests of the Ituri province of the Republic of Congo live the shortest people on the planet - the pygmies of the Mbuti tribe. Their average height is 135 cm. Light skin color helps them live easily and unnoticed in the forest shade at the Stone Age level.
They do not raise livestock or cultivate plants. They live in close connection with the forest, but no longer than a month in one place. The basis of their diet consists of collected berries, nuts, honey, mushrooms, fruits and roots, and their shape public organization determined by hunting.
Among those Mbuti who hunt mainly with bows and arrows, a group may consist of only three families, although during the honey-gathering season the hunters unite in large groups required during round-ups. But in the West, net hunters must have a group of at least seven families, preferably twice as many. In cases where the group already unites 30 families, it is divided.
There is enough space for 35 thousand Mbuti in the Ituri forests. Each group occupies its own territory, always leaving a decent-sized common area land.
The group as a whole considers itself a single family. And this is the main social unit, although the group does not always consist of relatives. Its composition can also change with each monthly nomadic journey. Therefore, there are no leaders or permanent leaders. In any case, all members of the group are in solidarity with each other.
When hunting, the family is divided into age groups. The older men set traps and ambush them with darts and clubs. Young men stand at a distance with arrows in their hands, so that if the game escapes, they can kill it. And women and children are behind the young hunters, facing them and waiting for the caught game to be put into baskets. They carry baskets behind their backs and are held in place by straps placed on their foreheads. When the group has caught game for the day, it returns to the campsite, collecting everything edible along the way. Then the food is cooked over a fire.
The most heinous crime among the Pygmies is considered to be when some cunning hunter sets up nets at the time of driving in game. The main catch ends up in his hands, and he doesn’t share it with anyone. But justice is restored simply and impressively. All the spoils are confiscated from the sly man, and his family remains hungry.”
A curious Englishman, Colin Turnbull, decided to conduct an experiment. He really wanted to check how the pygmy would behave outside his forest. Here's what he writes: “I persuaded an experienced hunter, Kenge, to go with me to the Ishango National Forest, a savannah teeming with game. We loaded up with all sorts of provisions, got into the car and drove off. Since it was pouring rain, Kenge did not even notice that the forest was left behind. When we drove out onto a grassy plain, my companion began to grumble: “Not a single tree, what a bad country.”
The only thing that calmed him down was the promise of plenty of game. But then he was upset again when he learned that it was impossible to hunt this game. When we climbed the slope and looked out over the plain, Kenge was dumbfounded. In front of him, a green plain stretched to the horizon, merging with Lake Edward. Without end and without edge. And elephants, antelopes, buffaloes, etc. graze everywhere. Kenge had never seen anything like this before.
“This meat would last for many months,” he said dreamily. I got into the car and kept getting out of it until we left the reserve. The next day, Kenge felt more confident and said:
- I was wrong, this a good place, although I don't like it. Here the sky is clear and the earth is clean. If only there were more trees... On the way back, the deeper we drove into the forest, the louder Kenge sang. At the camp he was greeted as a hero
The Mbuti tribe are pygmies living in eastern Zaire, numbering approximately 100 thousand people and speaking the Efe language. Their dark glory as merciless hunters is distinguished by a rather peaceful way of life, compared to the warlike North Kenyan tribes. All tribes have already been discovered, because European missionaries do not leave any ethnic group without their attention.
Mbuti pygmies change their sites once every five years in order to migrate closer and closer to civilization - near roads and rivers they can exchange their prey in the form of skins, meat, wild fruits and berries for the achievements of cultural life they need - salt, matches, metal objects.
Mbuti tribe
They also became interested in clothing, so it is almost impossible to see their famous skirts made of leaves and tree bark. The Mbuti come into contact for such natural exchanges with the sedentary and civilized Bantu (translated from Swahili - “people”).
Bantu is a linguistic group of most of the Zairian tribes and many other African peoples, the literal linguistic name of which denotes a sedentary people, tall in stature.
Some argue that by this act the hunters atone for their guilt for depriving the forest of game and vegetation, since the pygmies have an ambivalent attitude towards hunting. It brings them joy, pleasure, and they love to eat meat, but still they believe that it is not good to take the life of living beings, for God created not only the people of the forest, but also the animals of the forest.
Children at a very early age are instilled with the idea of dependence on the forest, faith in it, they are made to feel like they are part of the forest, and therefore they are entrusted with the responsibility of kindling a redemptive fire, without which there will be no successful hunt.
The high mobility of pygmies also leads to the unstable nature of social organization. Since the composition and size of groups changes all the time, they cannot have leaders or individual leaders, since they, like other people, can leave and leave the group without a leader. And since the Mbuti do not have a lineage system, it would be difficult to share leadership when the group splits into smaller units once a year. Here, age also plays an important role in the system of government, and everyone except children has their own responsibilities. But even children play a certain role: bad behavior (laziness, grumpiness, selfishness) is corrected not with the help of a punishment system - it does not exist among the pygmies - but simply by ridiculing the offender. Children can do this very well. For them, this is a game, but through it they comprehend the moral values of adult life and quickly correct the behavior of the offender, making him laugh. Young people are more likely to influence the lives of adults, in particular they may express their dissatisfaction with a group or their approval of the group as a whole rather than individuals during the religious holiday of Molimo. Adult hunters have the final say in economic matters, but that’s all. The elders act as arbiters and make decisions on the most important issues of the group, and the elders are respected by everyone.
The closeness that exists between the Mbuti pygmies and their forest world is manifested in the fact that they humanize the forest, calling it father and mother, since it gives them everything they need, even life. They do not try to control the world around them, but adapt to it, and this is the fundamental difference between their attitude towards the forest and the attitude towards the forest of its other inhabitants - fishermen and farmers. The Mbuti's technique is very simple, and other tribes that have a certain amount of material wealth consider hunters to be poor. But such material wealth would only hinder the Mbuti nomads, and the technology they have sufficiently satisfies their needs. They do not burden themselves with any excess. They make clothes from bark broken by a piece of elephant tusk, from skins and vines they make bags in which they carry children on their backs, quivers for arrows, bags, jewelry and ropes for weaving hunting nets. The Mbuti build shelters in a few minutes from young shoots and leaves, cutting them with metal machetes and knives that they receive from farmers living nearby. They say that if they did not have metal, they would have used stone tools, but this is doubtful - the pygmies are gradually entering the Iron Age.
The abundant gifts of the forest can be judged at least from the kasuku tree - the resin from its top is needed for cooking, and the resin taken from the roots of the tree is used to illuminate homes. The Mbuti also use this resin to seal the seams of the bark boxes in which they collect honey. Child with early years learns to use the world around him so as not to destroy it, but only to take everything that is needed at the moment. His education comes down to imitation of adults. His toys are replicas of objects that adults use: a boy learns to shoot slow-moving animals with a bow, and a girl goes into the forest and picks mushrooms and nuts in her tiny basket. Thus, children provide economic assistance by obtaining a certain amount of food, although for them it is just a game.
Thanks to a sense of interdependence and community, cultivated from birth, the pygmies stand together as a united group against neighboring tribes of forest farmers, who have a completely different attitude towards the forest and consider it a dangerous place that must be cleared in order to survive. The pygmies trade with these farmers, but not for economic reasons, but simply to prevent farmers from entering their forest in search of meat and other forest products that the peasants always need. Villagers are afraid of both the people of the forest and the forest itself, protecting themselves from them with rituals and magic.
The only magical means of hunters is of a “sympathetic” nature - a talisman made from forest vines, decorated with tiny pieces of wood, or mastic from the ashes of forest fires, mixed with the fat of some animal and placed in the horn of an antelope; it is then smeared on the body to ensure a successful hunt. The idea of such a talisman is simple: if the Mbuti comes into even closer physical contact with the forest, then his needs will certainly be satisfied. These acts are more religious than "magical" in nature, as can be seen in the example of the mother who swaddles her newborn child in a special robe made from a piece of bark (although now the mother could get soft cloth) and decorates the baby with amulets made from vines, leaves and pieces of wood, and then bathes him in the forest water that accumulates in some thick vines. With the help of this physical contact, the mother, as it were, devotes the child to the forest and asks for his protection. When trouble comes, as the Mbuti say, all they have to do is sing the sacred songs of the molimo ceremony, “wake up the forest with them” and draw its attention to their children - then everything will be all right. It is a rich but simple faith, presenting a striking contrast with the beliefs and practices of neighboring tribes.
But otherwise, the life of the Mbuti has not changed in any way; they, as in past centuries, remain the same gatherers and nomadic hunters, preserving their traditional culture.
Video: Ritual dances of African pygmies.
Skylab 4 (also SL-4 and SLM-4) is the third manned flight to the first American space station, Skylab. Also, the name "Skylab 4" refers to the Apollo series spacecraft that made this flight.
The expedition delivered absolute record The duration of a person's stay in space is 84 days, which was beaten only in 1977 at the Soviet Salyute-6 station - 96 days. Carr, Gibson and Pogue became the first astronauts to meet New Year in space, because launched on November 16, 1973, and returned to Earth the following year - February 8, 1974.
The work program was very intense, and the crew, consisting of novices, complained that the schedule was too tight. Ground services refused to reschedule the work, and in the end they pointedly declared an unscheduled day off and turned off the radio. This incident is the first recorded strike in space. However, by the end of the flight the planned program was completed."
We look at the photo materials, this time there are much fewer of them, unlike the lunar show. A copy of Skylab on Earth was also a film set for the show, it was divided into two zones, the first part of the “station” was included in the zero-gravity aircraft, the second part of the “station” was not included in the aircraft cabin, due to its large diameter of 6.6 meters, At first it was exactly like that. And therefore, the clowns’ demonstration of weightlessness was different: in the first part, it was weightlessness achieved on an airplane, and the second demonstration was achieved using a system of tricks and illusions. The training photos therefore mainly focused on the first small zone:
http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/gallery/images/skylab/skylab4/ndxpage1.html
http://www.apolloarchive.com/apollo_gallery.html
Post-Apollo Images Index. Skylab (three manned missions to orbiting laboratory/workshop - 1973)
Poor eyesight is not a problem for American astronachts, because real astronauts need 100% vision; for actors, such health and visual acuity are not required and this will do:
I wonder if the Americans knew that it would be impossible to write with ballpoint or ink pens in zero gravity? Looks like they didn't know:
S73-32839 (10 Sept. 1973) - Scientist-astronaut Edward G. Gibson, science pilot for the third manned Skylab mission (Skylab 4), enters a notation in a manual while seated at the control and display panel for the Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM) during simulations inside the one-G trainer for the Multiple Docking Adapter (MDA) at the Johnson Space Center (JSC). Dr. Gibson will be joined by astronauts Gerald P. Carr, commander, and William R. Pogue, pilot, when the Skylab 4 mission begins in November 1973.
An attempt to depict scientific activity at the “station”:
S73-32840 (10 Sept. 1973) --- Scientist-astronaut Edward G. Gibson, Skylab 4 science pilot, turns on a switch on the control box of the S190B camera, one of the components of the Earth Resources Experiments Package (EREP ). The single lens Earth Terrain Camera takes five-inch photographs. Behind Gibson is the stowed suit of astronaut Gerald P. Carr, commander for the third manned mission.
The EREP program began in December 1970, according to NASA, which supposedly made it possible to determine where and what resources of the Earth were located. Stands for "Earth Resources Experiment Package":
EREP - Earth Resources Experiment Package
The EREP Program began in December 1970 with the announcement by NASA that data collected by the EREP would be made available to qualified investigators for Earth resource investigations.
This is an attempt to copy the experiments of Soviet cosmonauts, about whose activities the American Intelligence informed the United States.
Demonstration new technology USA, a “treadmill” based on the sliding of the foot on a Teflon coating, how this sliding will occur is not known:
S73-33858 (November 1973) --- A close-up view of the feet of scientist-astronaut William E. Thornton as he demonstrates the use of a treadmill-like exercise device which was developed for maintaining the leg and back muscles of the Skylab 4 crewman. Thornton is in the Skylab Orbital Workshop simulator in Building 5 at the Johnson Space Center. The Skylab 2 and Skylab 3 astronauts had no exercise device onboard capable of adequately maintaining their leg and back muscles. The treadmill device consists of a Teflon-coated aluminum plate or sheet bolted to the floor of the Skylab Orbital Workshop. The crewmen will wear the bicycle ergometer harness while exercising. Bungee cords attached to the floor and to the harness will supply the downward pressure or force for the back and leg muscles. The astronaut's feet will slide over the Teflon-coated plate as he marches
S73-33858 (November 1973) --- large shot of astronaut scientist William E. Thornton's legs as he demonstrates the use of a treadmill-like exercise machine that was designed to maintain the tone and performance of a crew member's legs and back muscles on Skylab 4. Thornton at Skylab orbital workshop simulator in bldg. 5) at the Johnson Space Center. Skylab 2 and 3 astronauts did not have a training device on board that could adequately support their legs and back muscles. The treadmill device consists of a Teflon-coated aluminum plate or sheet screwed to the floor of the Skylab orbital workshop. Crew members will wear a cable ergometer during training. Bungee cords are attached to the floor and to the wiring, which will reduce pressure or force on the back and leg muscles. The astronaut's feet will slide on the Teflon-coated plate as he marches.
A crazy, ridiculous design, there can be no other words. The Teflon coating prevents the foot from slipping when walking on such a coating. Sliding generally has other physical justifications; a lubricant is needed that reduces the friction force, such as water, or oil, or another liquid.
The following are photographs and diagrams demonstrating an attempt to cure American astronachts from a serious illness - “star blindness”:
http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/gallery/images/skylab/skylab4/lores/s73-36910.jpg
S73-36910 (November 1973) --- An engineer's drawing of the Skylab 4 Far Ultraviolet Electronographic camera (Experiment S201). Arrows point to various features and components of the camera. As the Comet Kohoutek streams through space at speeds of 100,000 miles per hour, the Skylab 4 crewmen will use the S201 UV camera to photograph features of the comet not visible from the Earth's surface. While the comet is some distance from the sun, the camera will be pointed through the scientific airlock in the wall of the Skylab space station Orbital Workshop (OWS). By using a movable mirror system built for the Ultraviolet Stellar Astronomy (S019) Experiment and rotating the space station, the S201 camera will be able to photograph the comet around the side of the space station.
S73-36910 (November 1973) --- engineering drawing of an ultraviolet camera (experiment S201) Skylab 4. Arrows indicate the various functions and components of the camera. As Comet Kohoutek hurtles through space at 100,000 mph, Skylab 4 crew members will use the S201 UV camera to photograph features of the comet not visible from Earth's surface. While the comet is some distance from the sun, the cameras will be pointed through a science gateway in the Skylab wall of the orbital workshop space station. Using a moving mirror system built for the Ultraviolet Stellar Astronomy (S019) experiment and a rotating space station, the S201 camera will be able to photograph comets around the side of the space station.
With the help of a conventional telescope, the astronachts could not see the stars in their “space”.
S73-37264 (November 1973) --- Graphical representation of Skylab instrumentation relationship of Comet Kohoutek to Spectral emissions.
S73-37264 (November 1973) --- graphic presentation of the use of Skylab equipment to observe spectral emissions from Comet Kohoutek.
S74-20010 (November-December 1973) --- Six frames of Skylab 4 Far Ultraviolet Electronographic (S201 experiment) photograph showing halo of Comet Kohoutek.
S74-20010 (November-December 1973) --- six images from Skylab 4 in the far ultraviolet region (S201 experiment), photograph showing the halo of Comet Kohoutek.
S73-38731 (December 1973) --- Photograph taken of the Comet Kohoutek from the Skylab space station in Earth orbit by a Skylab 4 crew member.
S73-38731 (December 1973) --- photo Comet Kohoutek from the Skylab space station in Earth orbit, taken by a Skylab 4 crew member.
S73-33283 (28 April 1973) --- Videographs of Comet Kohoutek taken by the 36-inch telescope at the Kitt Peak National Observatory on April 28, 1973 for the Skylab program.
S73-33283 (April 28, 1973) --- Video footage of Comet Kohoutek taken with the 36-inch telescope at Kitt Peak National Observatory on April 28, 1973 under the Skylab program.
S74-17688 (11 Jan. 1974) --- This color photograph of the comet Kohoutek was taken by members of the lunar and planetary laboratory photographic team from the University of Arizona, at the Catalina Observatory with a 35mm camera on Jan. 11, 1974.
S74-17688 (11 Jan 1974) --- this color photography Comet "Kohoutek" was taken by members of the Lunar and Planetary Photography Laboratory team at Arizona State University, Catalina Observatory, using a 35mm camera on Jan. 11, 1974.
On Earth, they made do with a simple telescope, but in US space, only ultraviolet was needed to observe the comet. Without it, it is impossible to see either comets or stars in the black “sky” of American “space”.
S73-28411 (February 1973) --- The three members of the prime crew of the third of three scheduled manned Skylab missions (Skylab 4) go through Skylab preflight training in the Mission Training and Simulation Facility at the Johnson Space Center. Astronaut Gerald P. Carr (on right), Skylab 4 commander, is seated at a simulator which represents the control and display console of the Apollo Telescope Mount which is located in the space station"s Multiple Docking Adapter
S73-28411 (February 1973) --- Three prime crew members of the third of three planned manned Skylab missions (Skylab 4) entered through the pre-flight training system on a training and facility simulation mission at Johnson Space Center. P. Astronaut Gerald Carr (right), Skylab 4 commander, sits on a simulator that represents the controls and console display of the Apollo telescope that was on the space station, in the "Dock Adapter."
S73-32854 (10 Sept. 1973) --- Astronaut William R. Pogue, Skylab 4 pilot, uses the Skylab Viewfinder Tracking System (S191 experiment) during a training exercise in the Multiple Docking Adapter (MDA) one-G trainer at Johnson Space Center. In the background is astronaut Gerald P. Carr, seated at the control panel for the Earth Resources Experiments Package (EREP). Carr is Skylab 4 crew commander, and Gibson is science pilot.
S73-32854 (September 10, 1973) --- Astronaut William, Skylab 4, Skylab Viewfinder uses the tracking system (S191 experiment) during Adapter Dock One-G training at Johnson Space Center. In the background is astronaut Gerald P. Carr sitting at the console of the Earth Resources Experiments Package (EREP). Carr "Skylab 4" crew commander, and Gibson science pilot.
Without this system, it would have been impossible to see stars in American “space.” The Americans had their own “space” that was different from real space.
Now it was possible not to film again for the show “Skylab-4” on November 16th! everything was filmed in advance. Start day November 16, demonstration of a modest breakfast:
A modest breakfast is more likely the result of the US financial crisis, rather than the realization that it is dangerous to fill your stomach before a space flight, and the demonstration of abundant absorption of large amounts of junk food is a sign of falsification of the flight. Exit to the start:
And finally the start itself. Everything is as usual, heavy icing on the first stage, albeit in stripes where there were tanks with liquid oxygen, and an almost clean second stage, without abnormal icing, as on the first stage. The presence of a tank with liquid gas at a low temperature in the 2nd stage was declared; the thermal insulation is similar to that of the first and second stage.
Versions, opinions. Chapter 25
A Brief History of Skylab
The version about the “lunar” rocket is strongly contradicted by NASA’s message about the launch of the huge Skylab orbital station with a mass of 75 tons on May 14, 1973 (Fig. 1).
Ill.1.The structure of the Skylab station
(NASA artist's drawing).
1 - working compartment;
2 -an airlock for astronauts to go into outer space;
3 – docking module c two docking points;
4 - solar observatory;
5 - Apollo ship
So let's take a look at this counterargument.. Let's start with brief history"Skylab"("Heavenly Laboratory").
1. « Skylab was created and launched in a hurry. As S. Alexandrov writes: , “When it became clear that the lunar program would be limited to a few flights, the Skylab station was hastily created.” It would seem, what is the connection between two programs of such different purposes? Why is it necessary to quickly create a near-Earth station if the end of flights to the Moon is in sight?And yet, just five months after the flight of the last Apollo (A-17), Skylab was launched into low-Earth orbit.
2. Having started the Skylab program, NASA did not seem to intend to continue it. This is evidenced by the fact thatjust 3 months after the launch of Skylab and six months before the return of the last third crew from space, NASA decided to mothball all remaining Saturn 5s. And only they could launch subsequent Skylabs. This looks a little strange because, starting new project, developers, as a rule, see the prospects for its continuation in the most rosy tones. And, conversely, they don’t start a new project if they don’t see prospects for its development. In this light, NASA's decision to close the Skylab mission as soon as it began appears unusual.
Skylab was inhabited for only a tenth of the total time of its existence.All 3 visiting crews stayed at the station for a total of 171 days. After the return of the third crew (February 8, 1974), the station flew empty for 5 years. In July 1979, it entered the dense layers of the atmosphere and collapsed .
3. BThere were never more than three people at the station.
According to NASA, three Apollos with crews of three people visited Skylab in orbit. The corresponding flights were named “Skylab-2”, “Skylab-3” and “Skylab-4”. (“Skylab-1” or simply “Skylab” is the launch of the station itself, which was carried out in unmanned mode). Skylab, according to the description, had two docking nodes (Fig. 1), and two Apollos could dock to it at once. But this has never happened. First, the previous crew departed, and only then the next one arrived. N and not once did the number of astronauts on Skylab increase due to the second arriving crew, as was practiced at the Soviet Salyut and Mir stations, and is now happening at the ISS. As a result, despite the reported very big size working compartment of the station, there were never more than three people on it.
4. Despite the “Skylab experience,” NASA was unable to create a full-fledged orbital station and in this it was decisively behind the USSR (Russia).Having amazed contemporaries with its enormous size, Skylab disappeared without repeating itself in the history of astronautics. Even the modern ISS, which was “born” 30 years after Skylab and has absorbed all the achievements of world space technology over these 30 years, cannot compete with Skylab in terms of weight and dimensions. It is made up of blocks whose mass does not exceed 20 tons, that is, more than three times less than the mass of Skylab.
After Skylab, NASA tried to create a new orbital station, Freedom, but failedand after ten years of fruitless efforts, she stopped this work, setting a course for the ISS and relying on Russian (Soviet) experience. Skylab "worked well in orbit, but had no prospects for development".
5. All 9 astronauts who visited the station were US citizens. Not a single cosmonaut (astronaut) who is not a US citizen worked at the station, and cannot confirm its real structure. So, like the “flights to the moon,” this American space record is confirmed only by American witnesses.
All these facts encourage us to continue our acquaintancewith this station. Let's look at pictures of how the astronauts lived and worked in Skylab.
Such pictures can be taken on Earth
As NASA explains ,
spacious work compartment 1
was equipped in the rocket stage fuel tank (Fig. 1). Figure 2 shows the inside of this compartment. Here the author's attention was drawn to space suits marked with red marks.
Ill.2.Spacesuit exhibition?
Typically, designers try to place objects that are similar in type and purpose in one place: it is easier to use and takes up less space. And here it looks like some kind of exhibition of spacesuits, built in haste. One gets the impression that we were invited to look into the inside of a real fuel tank, temporarily decorated as a space habitat. Even if this is the author’s subjective impression, one thing can be said with confidence: the photograph in Fig. 2 does not bear any signs that it was taken in space.
Figure 3 shows a happy astronaut Conrad. He climbed into a special bag - a container where he will take a shower. NASA's commentary on this image says that this is happening in Skylab, that is, in space.
Fig.3
. The cloth sagged under the influence of gravity.
(Shower at Skylab)
But this scene would look exactly the same on Earth. The doubt is reinforced by the red-marked rag visible on the right top corner picture. She sagged strictly vertically, as if the force of weight was acting on her. How did this force “make its way” to the orbital station, where weightlessness should reign?
In the photographs, Fig. 4a, b, c, the astronauts are trying to convince us how easy it is for them to move in zero gravity.
Fig.4. Skylab astronauts need support. NASA captions:
A) Gibson floats through the airlock hatch; b) The car floats in the bow; V) Lusma as an acrobat
« Gibson floats through the airlock hatch." - this is NASA's caption for the photo Fig.4a. However, to get such a picture, Gibson only needs to stand in the hatch opening here on Earth and raise his hands. The photo was taken from above.
"The car is floating in the bow" under the domed “ceiling” of the working compartment (4b). But notice that Kar is glued to this ceiling. And imagine that the "ceiling" is actually the floor on which the astronaut lies. Then the picture will become completely “earthly”. The astronaut has an object under his back. It peeks over his right shoulder. Used as a support, this item provides a small gap between the astronaut's body and the floor so that the astronaut appears to be suspended in the air. At the same time, the astronaut, in order to keep his unusualposture, touches visible front with hands and feet meth.
"Lusma as an acrobat" also depicts “free floating” (ill. 4c). But, again, his legs are very suspiciously close to the treasured support (the edge of the hatch), on which he seems to be leaning with one of his knees.
The witty shot of Ill. 5a deserves special attention. Here as described by NASAAstronaut Kahr holds Astronaut Pogue on the tip of his finger. This picture, it would seem, convincingly demonstrates weightlessness - one person on Earth cannot hold another on the tip of his finger, while the other remains in an upside-down position.
But take a closer look at this photo. Being in zero gravity, peoplecan be in space in arbitrary positions relative to each other (ill. 6). And in photo 5a, the astronauts positioned themselves in relation to each other as if they were being “built” in one line by some force.
Turning over picture 5a, you can seehow it could have been made on Earth (5b).It is enough for Pogu to stand “tiptoe” on the pipe, and for Karoo to hang on a hidden support (say, on a crossbar). And so that this support is not visible to us, the figure of Kara is shown only from the waist up. The hanging Kar touches the crown of the standing Pog with his finger.And the force that lines up the astronauts may well be gravity.
Ill.5.And gravity seems to be at work here too.
A) NASA caption: " "Kar demonstrates 'weight lifting' in zero gravity by holding astronaut Pogue on the tip of his finger."
b)here's how you can take such a picture on Earth, in the absence of weightlessness
In general, the impression from the photographs, illustrations 2, 3, 4, 5, is that there is no weightlessness in them, but there is a desire to show it. Although, it would seem, if you have a huge space station, then why waste effort on such tricks?
These clips about weightlessness can be filmed on an airplane.
On NASA websites and in films, you can find up to two dozen individual clips or episodes embedded in films in which Skylab astronauts actually demonstrate weightlessness. Figure 6a shows a frame from one such clip.
Ill.6.Astronauts and cosmonauts demonstrate weightlessness:
A)astronauts demonstrate weightlessness supposedly in Skylab; b) Soviet cosmonaut in a simulator plane in the same years; V) scheme for achieving weightlessness in a simulator aircraft
Watching clips on the topic of weightlessness in Skylab shows all the episodes about weightlessness, supposedly filmed in Skylab, are very short-lived. Their average duration is 10 seconds. And when there are longer clips, they consist of a set of separate short scenes. Why were the astronaut cameramen in such a hurry, if in a real space station weightlessness is a constant “thing”, and there is nowhere to rush when filming it. The assumption arises that all these short clips were filmed not in space, but in an airplane known to all astronauts - a simulator (ill. 6c). To achieve a short-term state of weightlessness in the cabin, such an aircraft accelerates upward and, continuing to move by inertia, makes a “slide” and then begins to fall down. In the short seconds of passing the “slide”, a state close to weightlessness sets in in the aircraft cabin. It would be ideal if the external air did not slow down the fall of the aircraft. The pilot of the plane tries to compensate for this braking as accurately as possible with the help of the engines. After passing the hill, the plane cannot fall for a long time, otherwise it will not have time to recover from the dive. The typical duration of weightlessness on an airplane is about 30 seconds.(at a certain risk it may be slightly increased).
Airplane simulators have been used since the very first years of manned space exploration. In Fig. 6c we see cosmonaut A. Nikolaev floating in zero gravity in an airplane during the very years discussed in this book. Therefore, NASA could easily have filmed a zero-gravity tumble inside such an aircraft for a dozen or two seconds, and then presented it as acrobatic exercises supposedly inside a space station (Fig. 6a). There are no technical difficulties in reproducing the interior of the station in the cabin of an aircraft simulator. The size of its interior is quite sufficient for this. Suffice it to say that entire mock-ups of Soyuz spacecraft were loaded onto our planes, and the cosmonauts hovered around them, practicing spacewalks.
The situation was more difficult for NASA with filming some subtle physical experiments in zero gravity. Let's talk about one of them. It is known that in zero gravity, water collects into balls that float freely in the surrounding air. Figure 7 shows several frames from a clip in which an ISS cosmonaut demonstrates this experience. . First, the astronaut squeezed the water balloon out of the drinking syringe, and it hung near his chin (ill. 7a). After 6 seconds, the astronaut blew on it, and the ball split into two (ill. 7b). Finally, the astronaut got tired of the balls, and he swallowed first one, and then the other (ill. 7c, d). The entire episode took 13-14 seconds, and all this time the balls hung calmly in the air in front of the astronaut’s nose, and the astronaut slowly played with them. This immobility was a consequence of the ideal weightlessness on the space station.
Ill.7.This is real weightlessness.
In the International Space Station, water balloons hang in the air for as long as desired until the astronaut gets tired of it.
It's a different matter in an airplane simulator. No matter how much he regulates the operation of the engines, the plane will fall either a little slower or a little faster than it would be in free fall. Tumbling astronauts will not pay attention to these small deviations from the state of weightlessness. But a water balloon under such circumstances will not be able to hang motionless. It will shift in one direction or another depending on who is overpowering whom at the moment: whether the thrust of the engines slightly exceeds the braking from the air, or vice versa. And only in rare moments of transition from one state to another, the ball will freeze in the air of the cabin. From this it is clear that in a simulator aircraft the experiment with a freely hanging water balloon, if possible, will be for a very short time. This is exactly what is observed in the video with a free water balloon, allegedly filmed in Skylab. One of them shows a water ball floating freely in the air (Fig. 8). This episode lasts only 1.4s. Say the word “Skylab” once - that’s the entire duration of this soaring.
Ill.8.A short moment of joy:
The Skylab astronaut was able to demonstrate a suspended water balloon for only 1.4 seconds.
As a result, it becomes clear that all those short-term clips about weightlessness in Skylab, which NASA shows, could well have been filmed in a simulator aircraft, inside of which the visibility of the station premises is equipped.
Why did only three people work in the spacious station?
According to The habitable volume of the Skylab working compartment was 270 cubic meters (Fig. 9a). A NASA artist painted the inside of Skylab (Fig. 9a). To help the reader notice the human figure in such space, the author put an arrow in the drawing.“Such a large volume made it possible to create in Skylab conditions for the crew’s life and work that were close to those on earth. At the rear of the block there is a wardroom, cabins for sleeping and resting." . The astronauts of the modern ISS can envy such conditions: look how cramped they live in (ill. 9b).But why was the crew of the spacious Skylab so small - only three people?? Is there really no work for more astronauts? Look, in the 5 times more cramped room of the ISS module (50 cubic meters), 7 people settled down to rest (Fig. 9b). Of course, there is not always such a crowd on the ISS: it happens when crews change. Usually 3-4 people work there. The change of crews according to the scheme “passed the watch - accepted the watch” makes it possible to transfer the station in working condition, so to speak, from hand to hand, without its conservation. But two Apollos never docked at Skylab at the same time, although for this purpose, according to NASA’s description, there was the necessary docking module (Fig. 1). Eventually More than three people have never lived in the supposedly spacious Skylab, even for a short time. This can be explained by the fact that In fact there was no operating compartment on Skylab. And the astronauts who flew to Skylab remained to live in what they arrived in - in the cramped cabin of the Apollo spacecraft.
Shot 9. A) 1973 - how spacious it is in Skylab (drawing by a NASA artist);
b) 2003 - 30 years later, 7 people are huddled in a cramped modern ISS
According to NASA, the three visiting expeditions to Skylab lasted 28, 59 and 84 days, respectively. It’s hard to say how long they were actually there, given NASA’s extensive experience in simulations. It cannot be ruled out that the astronauts of the Skylab-2,3,4 missions would actually return earlier from orbit, followed by a spectacular splashdown within the time announced by NASA; fortunately, the technique of show splashdowns was apparently worked out quite well (Chapter 24).
Possible scheme for simulating an orbital station
According to the official version NASA's manned block of the Skylab station was a converted, empty stage body III (S - IVB ) "Saturn 5". The station was launched into orbit only by the first two stages of Saturn 5. But everything we have learned about Skylab indicates that it was not an orbital station, but an imitation of it.How was it accomplished?
First of all, we note that according to our version, Fig. 10a shows not the Saturn-5, which did not take place, but another “lunar” rocket, that is, a dressed-up Saturn-1B, in which one working stage is located at the very bottom , and the second working stage (the same S-IVB ) crowns the rocket. On the “lunar” rocket stage S-IVB fully fueled, which rules out any options with the Skylab working compartment. It is simply not on the launching rocket. According to our version, the “lunar” rocket is so overloaded with a “masquerade” that even entering low-Earth orbit is simply a spent empty stage S-IVB seems doubtful. Therefore, most likely, the “moon” rocket that NASA launched on May 14, 1973, codenamed Skylab 1, did not put anything into orbit at all, and its last stage fell into the Atlantic Ocean. But the launch itself was not in vain: it depicted the launch of Skylab, without which the rest would have been unthinkable.
But if another “lunar” rocket fell into the ocean, then how did the structure that we see in Fig. 10b end up in orbit? According to the author, it could well have been launched in secret and at an appropriate time in a separate launch of the “normal” Saturn-1B. Let us recall that every second space launch carried out at that time in the USA was secret (Chapter 18). The second stage of the standard Saturn 1B(S - IVB ) easily enters low-Earth orbit and can represent Skylab. As a payload, this stage carries what is called a “solar telescope module” and a docking unit (Fig. 1).After entering orbit, the telescope module reclines on consoles, giving the entire complex a rather picturesque appearance.
Ill. 10.Version of the Skylab “orbital station” hoax:
a) another “lunar” rocket launches;
b) Skylab in orbit
The completeness of this view, however, was hampered by the appearance of a “naked” rocket stage with a nozzle sticking out from behind. It was entrusted to correct this deficiencyto the astronauts who soon arrived at Skylab on the Apollo spacecraft with the Skylab 2 mission. They had to disguise the spent rocket stage so that it would turn into something unlike itself. To justify the need for astronauts to go into outer space, NASA announced that during the launch of Skylab, the sun protection coating was torn off and one panel came off solar battery and another one was damaged , so the arriving astronauts are tasked with the appropriate repairs. In fact, according to the author, none of these incidents occurred, because from the bare step S-IVB there is nothing to pick. The arriving astronauts, having gone into space, attached a dummy solar battery panel “P” to the body of the rocket stage, installed a supposedly sunscreen, but in fact a camouflage screen “E” over it, and covered the nozzle of the rocket stage with a cover “H”, which NASA called it a cooling radiator. After this, Skylab took on the appearance that adorned the NASA archives (ill. 9b).
A slightly simpler version of the simulation is also possible, in which there is no need for an additional launch of Saturn-1B. It should be taken into account that in the launch of Skylab, the “lunar” rocket was launched for the thirteenth time. And, most likely, NASA specialists improved their brainchild over and over again. It cannot be ruled out that by the time of the Skylab launch, the “lunar” rocket could already have launched its last, empty stage.(S - IVB ) into orbit plus a few more tons of load (models of the named modules). In this case, an additional launch is not needed.
Imitating scientific achievements does not benefit progress
As S. Alexandrov writes, Skylab “worked well in orbit, but had no prospects for development...In the early 80s, p.Spurred by the successes of Salyut, the Americans began designing the Freedom station. There was no end in sight to the research work, and its leadership had absolutely no idea how to report to Congress for the money spent.” . And then the United States decided to create an orbital station, based on many years of Russian experience .
But the dummy station could not have development prospects . And the Soviet orbital stations were real milestones in the development of astronautics, therefore it was the Soviet (Russian) experience that was useful in the creation of the ISS. For the same reason, “Skylab”, as an imitation of the station, was “visited” only at the very beginning of its “career”, and then, as soon as the need for the performance disappeared, it was abandoned .
You can't invite someone to a house that doesn't exist.
In 1975, during the Soyuz-Apollo flight, Soviet cosmonauts saw Apollo in action, and American cosmonauts saw our Soyuz. Since 1976, foreign cosmonauts began working on Soviet space stations. Later, the Americans actively invited foreign astronauts (cosmonauts) to fly on their shuttles. But only Americans saw Skylab in space. This fact is consistent with the version of the station imitation, becauseyou can't invite someone to a house that doesn't exist.
NASA apparently understood that the United States was expected to invite foreign astronauts to Skylab. And in 1975, when Skylab was already flying empty, NASA said the following words: : “After the completion of the Apollo, Skylab and Soyuz-Apollo programs, there will be two Saturn 5 rockets, one Skylab station, and three Apollo command modules. NASA considered using this equipment to launch a second Skylab station, similar to the one launched in May 1973. Saturn V will launch Skylab. It will serve as a space station for the Soyuz and Apollo spacecraft. Using existing equipment, these options would cost between $220 million and $650 million. But the funds were not allocated. In August 1973, it was decided to mothball the equipment. In December 1976, missiles and spaceship were transferred to museums."
So, it all ended with talking. It's hard to believe that this happened due to lack of funds. Firstly, the amount mentioned is small by the standards of large projects (no more3% of the cost of the Apollo program). Secondly, the share participation of the USSR, and possibly other countries, would reduce NASA expenses.Therefore, it is more likely that the international Skylab was discussed only as a diversion.
"Skylab" - a brilliant epilogue to "Apollo"
Why was there a rush to launch and everything that followed? Is it really just because, as S. Aleksandrov writes, the lunar program is ending, and we need to do something, hurry somewhere?
The authors see the reason for this rush in another way. They write thatand after the completion of the Apollo flights, some Soviet specialists still had doubts about the reality of American landings on the Moon. Such doubts encouraged the continuation of the lunar race on the part of the USSR, and this threatened to expose the hoax. Just a manned flyby of the Moon (without landing) could show that there are no platforms from American lunar modules on the Moon. Even sending an automatic satellite to survey the lunar surface would be dangerous for the same reason. Therefore, it was necessary to push the USSR to curtail its lunar program in all directions. The urgent launch of the supposedly heavy Skylab served this purpose.. He “finished off” the last doubts regarding the existence of a real lunar rocket in the United States. H Three months after the success of Skylab, the USSR closed work on the program of manned flights to and to the Moon, and a little later stopped sending automatic vehicles there.
***
Skylab was essentially an epilogue to the Apollo program, a brilliant epilogue both in terms of the boldness of its design and the art of execution. And perhaps it is no coincidence that one of the directors of the Skylab program was Colonel Frank Borman, commander of Apollo 8, who did so much for the success of the entire lunar hoax (ill. 11).He was actor No. 1 in act No. 1 (“Apollo 8”) of this play, he carried out excellent political reconnaissance before the flight of Apollo 11 (chapter 20), and he prepared a brilliant epilogue for the entire Apollo program.
Ill. 11.Old friend.
1 . NASA http://www. astronautix. com/craft/skylab. htm - detailed information on Skylab, about the delivery of rockets to the museum, see
2 Enz. "Cosmonautics". Under scientific ed. acad. B.E. Chertoka. M.: Avanta+, 2004, p. 126, 193. 336-337, 341-344
3. see[iv27], [iv28], [iv29], [iv30], [iv31], [iv32] section 28 Total in the series “American Space Odyssey” in the films “ Skylab: The First 40 days", "Skylab: The 2nd manned misson", "Four rooms e a rth view "There are up to two dozen such episodes.
American orbital stations
The conceptual developments of German specialists served as the basis for a series of orbital station projects developed as part of a wide variety of space programs.
In 1954, at the Fifth International Congress of the Federation of Astronautics, the project of a four-person maneuvering station, serving as an intermediate base for interplanetary expeditions, was discussed. This project was developed by the American Kraft Erice.
Four years later, his project, called Outpost, was revived as a possible response to the launch of the first Soviet satellite.
Erice proposed using the Atlas-D intercontinental rocket, modified by Convair, as an orbital station. At that time it was the largest American rocket: length - 22.8 meters, diameter - 3 meters.
Such a naive project, of course, could not find support, but in its parameters it already resembled the later concept of an orbital station, which is now considered traditional - the orbital station, according to this concept, is part of the launch vehicle and its dimensions are determined based on rocket dimensions.
One of the most well-thought-out projects of that time was the American orbital station MOL (MOL - short for Manned Orbiting Laboratory), which was developed by the US Air Force as one of the elements of its ambitious space program.
In June 1959, the preliminary design of the MOL station was approved as the basis for the competitive development of an orbital station under the Gemini program. It was assumed that the station would be assembled from three parts: the main block, the Gemini spacecraft with its crew, and the Gemini return capsule. To carry out manned maneuvers, it was possible to dock the propulsion system of one of the intermediate blocks of the Titan-3 rocket to the main block.
In addition to purely military tasks (observation of enemy territory, inspection and interception of enemy satellites), the long-term manned station "MOL" is also aimed at scientific tasks, such as: studying the long-term effect of weightlessness on human body, testing of a closed life support system, testing of new types of propulsion systems. On December 10, 1963, Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara announced the closure of the Dyna-Sor air-launch spaceplane program in favor of the MOL long-term station program. Under this program, a corresponding agreement has been concluded between the Ministry of Defense and NASA.
Thus, the project received a new impetus, and in June 1964, three companies joined the station creation program: Douglas, General Electric and Martin. The launch date of the station is set for 1967–1968.
However, the project had serious opponents. Thus, Senator Clinton R. Anderson, who headed the Committee on Aeronautics and Space, sent a letter to President Lyndon Johnson in which he called for merging the MOL and Apollo programs in order to save money. Anderson assured that based on the groundwork for the Apollo orbital modules, it was possible to design and assemble a full-fledged long-term station. There was a reason for his words, but Johnson chose to support the Ministry of Defense by allocating $1.5 billion for the MOL project.
In 1965, the project for the MOL station as a whole was ready.
The long-term orbital station "MOL" was a sealed cylinder with dimensions: total length - 12.7 meters, maximum diameter - 3 meters, habitable volume - 11.3 m^3, total mass - 8.62 tons. The crew consists of 2 people. Estimated service life is 40 days. The maneuvering engine runs on solid fuel, total time work - 255 seconds. Power supply - fuel cells and solar panels.
In March 1966, construction began on Launch Pad 6 for the Titan ZS rocket at the Vandenberg Air Force Base at the Western Test Site, which would launch the station into orbit.
In February 1967, the main contractor for the construction of the station was determined. It turned out to be the Douglas company. At the same time, NASA donated the Gemini 6 capsule and other equipment to the Air Force to train future MOL crews.
It would seem like a very successful year. However, it was 1967 that became critical for the MOL project. It turned out that the designers did not meet the weight restrictions. We had to urgently think about modernizing the Titan rocket and increasing its payload capacity using mounted boosters. It took eight months to discuss and find the optimal solution, as a result of which the launch was postponed until 1970, and the total cost of the project increased from 1.5 to 2.2 billion dollars.
In March 1968, the main block of the future MOL station was completed and sent for static testing, but within a year it was decided to completely curtail all work on the program. The liquidation of the program to create a long-term station "MOL" was the result of a general reduction in spending on manned spaceflight associated with the loss of mobilizing guidelines after the landing of the Apollo 11 crew on the Moon and the aggravation of the political situation on Earth.
Accordingly, other American projects of long-term orbital stations, which were in one way or another connected with the successful development and completion of the MOL program, were also cancelled.
Thus, the project of the MORL research station (“MORL” is short for Manned Orbital Research Laboratory), which Boeing and Douglas had been developing since 1964, was closed and forgotten. This station, with a diameter of 6.8 meters, a length of 12.6 meters and a mass of 13.5 tons, with a crew of four people, was to be launched into orbit by the Saturn-1B launch vehicle. During a hundred days in orbit, the station crew could complete an extensive program of astronomical and biomedical research. At the end of the program, the astronauts would return to Earth in a Gemini or Apollo recovery capsule sent into orbit with MORL. Interestingly, it was planned to place a two-seater centrifuge at this station, designed to maintain normal physical shape among crew members.
In later versions of the MORL project, the station was supposed to house a space telescope with a diameter of 4 meters and a length of 15 meters, and in 1965, the Douglas Space Technology Laboratory put forward a project for a Mars expedition, in which the MORL station acted as an interplanetary spacecraft launched to Mars using the Saturn MLV–V-1 upper stage.
Another project that suffered as a result of the liquidation of the MOL program was the LORL project (short for Large Orbiting Research Laboratory), which remained as a development of the MOL at a later stage. The station, designed for a crew of 18 people (!!!) and a service life of at least five years, was supposed to be assembled from modules delivered into orbit by heavy Saturn-5 rockets.
There were other projects of orbital stations created in the development of the Gemini, Apollo and Saturn programs. All of them, however, were rejected for the simple reason of lack of funding. NASA again had to save money and curb its appetites. Therefore, from a whole list of projects, the American space agency again had to choose one thing. On May 14, 1973, the first American station, Skylab (short for “Sky Laboratory”), weighing 77 tons, was launched into an orbit with an altitude of 434 kilometers at perigee and 437 kilometers at apogee. The main block of the station was created on the basis of the third stage of the Saturn 5 launch vehicle, which remained unclaimed in the lunar program.
