In search of a scientific practical answer to the question of how effective self-presentation and self-presentation is carried out, we will analyze the strategies, techniques and methods of self-presentation offered by different authors. The purpose of this research work– search for technologies, experience management know-how that could be used in practice.

The term self-presentation is generally used interchangeably with impression management to refer to the many strategies and techniques an individual uses to create and control his external image and the impressions of himself that he displays to others.

In addition to the term self-presentation (tracing paper from English self-presentation), which is used relatively recently, for a long time, the concepts of self-presentation and self-presentation, used as synonyms, were more characteristic of the domestic tradition.

There are attempts to consider self-presentation as a behavioral realization of motivation. For example, R. Arkin and A. Schutz see in self-presentation the realization of the motivation to achieve or avoid failures and distinguish acquiring and defensive self-presentation on this basis.

• An acquiring self-presentation expresses achievement motivation. It is characterized by the choice of adequate roles and tasks (corresponding to social status, education, etc.), the choice of a social environment corresponding to the level of identification of the subject (a person communicates with his peers).
• Defensive self-presentation is a behavioral manifestation of the motivation to avoid failure. She is mostly unconscious. A person chooses an environment that is inadequate for solving problems: either with low requirements, or with prohibitively high ones (adventurous self-presentation).

Self-presentation according to R. Baumeister and A. Steinhilber is self-disclosure in interpersonal communication through the demonstration of one's thoughts, character, etc. This is an unconscious process, it reflects the social nature of a person, his need for recognition by other people. R. Baumeister and A. Steinhilber believe that a person needs self-disclosure, i.e. in expressing yourself outside world. In the process of interpersonal communication, he represents his inner content: thoughts, character, values, beliefs. His goal is not only to impress, but also to demonstrate what he is.

1. The phenomenon of self-presentation: research by Erving Goffman

The well-known work of Erving Goffman, Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, became the basis for the analysis of the phenomenon of self-presentation for many years.

Goffman argues that when a person appears in front of others, others usually seek to collect information about him or base their behavior on the basis of the information they already have. They will be interested in his socio-economic status, self-concept, attitude towards them, competence, creditworthiness, etc.

Information about a person helps to determine the nature of the situation; allows you to understand what a person expects from others and what they can expect from him. By understanding this, others will know how to behave better in order to evoke the desired reaction in the future.

There are many sources of information available to the public. They can pick up clues by drawing conclusions from behavior and appearance, using their past experience, or, more importantly, applying pre-existing stereotypes without checking. They may also rely on a conjecture based on a set of psychological traits as a means of predicting a person's present and future behavior.

This self-expression (and, accordingly, the ability to impress) contains two points: what a person betrays and what betrays him. The first refers to direct speech messages or their substitutes. It is communication in the traditional and narrow sense. The second contains a wide range of activities that others may perceive as symptoms of acting. Viewers expect the performance to be played for reasons other than those stated in the information being broadcast. However, a person can deceive in the first case and pretend in the second.

The observer, according to Goffman, can only speculate: “We live by assumption. Let's say I'm your guest. You don't know, you can't scientifically determine that I'll steal your money or your spoons. But, most likely, I will not do this, and, most likely, you will invite me to visit.

Thus, when an individual appears before the audience, he has to mobilize his activity in order to convey the impression in which he is interested. For example, a girl from a hostel might organize phone calls to give the impression of how popular she is.

When a person appears before the audience, his behavior will influence the outcome of the situation that should unfold. Sometimes he calculates his behavior in order to evoke the necessary reaction. And sometimes a person, although he calculates his behavior, remains unaware that he is doing it. In some cases, he intentionally and consciously expresses himself in a certain way, but he does so mainly because the traditions of his group or social status require such self-expression. Others, in turn, may be quite satisfied with the impression made on them, or they may misunderstand the situation.

Knowing that a person is more likely to present himself in a favorable light for him, viewers can divide what they observe into two parts: the first, which is relatively easy to manipulate at will - mostly words, and the second, which seems difficult to comprehend and controlled, what gives out. This is the "fundamental asymmetry" of the communication process: a person is aware of one channel of information, and his viewers are aware of this channel, as well as another. However, it should be added that the art of recognizing the calculated efforts of the individual seems to be more easily improved than the ability of a person to manipulate his own behavior. The audience has an advantage over the actor.

Social relations are built on the principle that everyone with certain social characteristics has the moral right to expect that others will treat him in accordance with them and behave accordingly. It follows from this principle that a person who explicitly or implicitly demonstrates that he has a certain status must really be what he claims to be.

Summarizing the above, it can be noted that when a person appears in front of other people, he has many reasons to try to control the impression that he makes. It's all about acting and directing, the uncomplicated but completely obligatory ones that seem to be found everywhere in social life.

So, according to E. Hoffman, appearing in front of other people in whom he is interested (spectators), a person must mobilize his activity in order to make the right impression. This is done:

1. to elicit the desired response;
2. to appear "by that person";
3. because this is what the audience expects from a representative of this group;
4. because the social role requires it;
5. because otherwise he runs the risk of being misunderstood, which will change the situation as a whole;
6. to come to "understanding" and thus achieve their goals.

It should be well understood that the impression is a very delicate, subtle reality that can be destroyed by a small mistake.

Simone de Beauvoir cites the example of a woman who, having dressed, no longer imagines herself as she is, but as an image - as a sculpture or a picture; she is like an actor on a stage. She identifies herself with something unreal, frozen, perfect, the heroine of a novel, a portrait or a bust, and this gives her pleasure.

Erving Goffman writes about distortion as an integral part of performance.

The audience has a certain opportunity to find out how sincere such a performance is. The audience feels that the performance can be true or false. Therefore, they pay attention to specific details of the performance that can orient them.

Sometimes when we ask ourselves whether a representation is true or false, what we really mean is, is the person entitled to represent himself in this way? People tend to relate differently to those who present themselves in a different light in the public interest, casually or as a joke, than to those who pursue their game in pursuit of personal psychological or material interests. In addition, there are different attitudes about what should be for a certain age and gender. For example, a fifteen-year-old boy is not allowed to drive a car and drink in a bar, posing as an eighteen-year-old, and a woman can present herself younger and more attractive than she really is.

In a good marriage, spouses are expected to keep many facts about money, the past, bad or expensive addictions, loves, fears, children's behavior, and so on, secret. And only in this way will they be able to maintain the status quo of relations.

Often a distortion concerning just one of the aspects of a person's activity can make him worry and thereby spoil the whole idea. But for many social messages, it doesn't matter what the truth is: what they are trying to convey, or what they are trying to hide. Goffman singles out mystification as an obligatory attribute of representation.

There are words for conveying information and ritual words. To create a full-fledged communication, it is not enough just to convey information, you need to say a few words to indicate the situation. First of all, the status of the participants and the distance of communication should be indicated. This is very well understood and carried out in the army. For example, the captain of a ship will never dine with other officers and will always keep to himself, which, of course, will make familiarity towards him unacceptable. He must, as it were, put himself on a pedestal and stay there.

People don't want kings to be on friendly terms with, they want to see them as distant and mystical, like the Oracle of Delphi. As in the army fear and reverence are instilled in the inferior to the superior, so the success of the performance depends on the degree of reverence that the performer will be able to inspire in the audience. However, if the hoax fails, the actor will experience shame.

As K. Rizler noted, such is the medal of social reality, where, on the one hand, fear, and on the other, shame. The audience feels the secret mystical power of the actor, and the actor knows that his secrets are funny. The real secret mysteries is that in fact there is no mystery, the main thing is not to let the public know about it.

2. Strategies and techniques of self-presentation by I. Jones and T. Pittman

Researchers I. Jones and T. Pittman understand self-submission (self-presentation) as the behavioral realization of the desire for power in interpersonal relationships. They identify five types of power and offer, respectively, five strategies for achieving it. Strategies and techniques of self-presentation according to Jones and Pittman, the goals of their implementation and types of power are summarized in Table. 1.

Table 1. Self-presentation strategies according to I. Jones and T. Pittman

The first strategy of self-presentation is called "trying to please" (ingratiating). Trying to please is an attempt to present yourself attractive in the eyes of others. According to the authors, one who tries to please must hide the real purpose of his activity, or he will achieve the opposite effect. There are several main ways in which a person can try to achieve the goal of looking desirable to others:

• The first way is to simply agree with what the object thinks and says.
• The second way is to praise the dignity and personality of the subject.
• The third way is to show favor to the person who needs to please.

But, as the authors note, these strategies require subtlety. If used carelessly, they betray the subject's intentions. In addition, they can cause additional problems. An object that needs to be liked is easier to deceive than observers, since people tend to be positive about themselves and their judgments. People believe that their opinions are correct, they are not very suspicious of those who agree with them. But this does not apply to outside observers who have their own sets of judgments. Therefore, a person seeking to please can raise his position in the eyes of the object and at the same time lower his position in the eyes of observers.

Self-promotion is another self-presentation strategy somewhat similar to the previous one. But if trying to please is an attempt to look attractive, then a person promoting himself is trying to look competent. For example, an applicant for a vacant position may choose to demonstrate his attractiveness, or he may show his competence. Trying to please is a strategy whose goal is to gain liking, while self-promotion is aimed at gaining respect from other people. Most effective method self-promotion - demonstration of their knowledge and skills.

The third strategy for gaining power, according to I. Jones and T. Pittman, is intimidation. The bully must try to convince the target that he is potentially dangerous, i.e. can and will cause trouble if the subject refuses to do what is asked of him. It is also a dangerous strategy. First, the bully may appear rude. Secondly, people do not like those who bully them, and they associate with them for good reasons.

The fourth strategy for achieving interpersonal influence is exemplification. The one who chooses this strategy must convince the object that he can serve as an example of, say, honesty or moral virtue. Thus, the one who exemplifies is, in a sense, self-promotion. However, the one who promotes himself demonstrates competence, while the one who explains by example demonstrates the importance of his personality. This strategy is also dangerous. The exemplary person runs the risk of being revealed to the object: in fact, he does not represent what he is trying to demonstrate.

The fifth strategy is supplication, a show of weakness and dependence. Prayer works, according to the authors, because it is a widespread norm in Western culture to take care of a person in need. But prayer also does not always guarantee success, and besides, weakness is not always attractive.

A tactic related to pleading to get attention is called self-handicapping. It is believed that a person tries to avoid interference and embarrassment. But there are circumstances when he can look for them. For example, if he is to be evaluated while solving a certain task and he is not sure that he is able to do it well. Self-complexity has two advantages:

1. if a man fails, it will provide him with an excuse.
2. if a person wins, it will increase his success.

Some people interfere with themselves for various reasons. People with high self-esteem can increase their achievements, while people with low self-esteem can use this strategy to protect themselves from failure.

If the interest is in impressing others, then it is necessary to create the appearance of interference. This can often be observed when, before performing any action, a person announces that he is not feeling well, which will undoubtedly prevent him from successfully completing his task. But if the interest is not in convincing others but in convincing oneself, then one must really have a handicap. Thus, self-complexity:

• increases the value of success;
• reduces the cost of defeat.

3. Impression Management Techniques by Robert Cialdini

R. Cialdini proposed two indirect impression management techniques. The first technique is called basking in reflected glory. Its essence lies in the use of someone else's success for the purpose of its self-presentation. In this case, two points need to be worked out:

• First, choose the right object, the popularity of which can have an impact on a significant audience.
• Secondly, it is correct to designate your attitude to this object. For this, according to R. Cialdini, it is possible that not direct declaration, but indirect indications, for example, the use of signs of social symbols, will be more effective.

The second technique was called R. Cialdini briefly - to harm (blasting). It consists in the deliberate exaggeration of the shortcomings of something or someone in order to increase one's own status in the eyes of others. Although this is a dangerous technique, experiments have shown that it is used quite often.

4. Self-feeding techniques according to G.V. Borozdina

Self-feeding, according to G.V. Borozdina, lies in the art of purposefully attracting the recipient's attention to those (intentionally created) features of one's appearance that trigger the mechanisms of the partner's social perception. These mechanisms of social perception serve as the basis for the classification of self-presentation techniques [Borozdina, 1999].

1. Self-presentation of superiority is highlighting, emphasizing external signs superiority in dress, manner of speech, behavior.
2. Self-delivery of attractiveness is the work expended on bringing clothes in line with external data.
3. Self-presentation of attitude is a demonstration to a partner of one's attitude towards him by verbal and non-verbal means.
4. Self-presentation of the state and causes of behavior is drawing attention to the reason for one's own actions, which seems to the subject the most acceptable.

During the implementation of these techniques, most often, according to G.V. Borozdina, simple, even naive means of self-feeding are used.

5. Conclusions

A review of the strategies, techniques, techniques and methods of self-presentation proposed by the authors allows us to conclude that, in general, the proposed recommendations for forming an impression can be divided into two groups. Separation criterion: a proposed way of organizing the communicator's behavior.

In accordance with the recommendations of the first group, the communicator is invited to choose an image of self-presentation in a social context and, using his life experience, try to embody it. This group includes the strategies of self-presentation by I. Jones and T. Pittman. In this case, the communicator is asked to first choose the type of person who seems charming or competent or dangerous or in need of support. Then, using your everyday experience, you should try to recreate this image (play a role) with the help of special techniques-techniques: flattery, boasting, threats, prayers, etc. It turns out that the image of self-presentation is chosen in a social context, and communicative techniques from everyday experience become the source of its embodiment. This group also includes self-complexity strategies and praise of the opponent's performance, as well as R. Cialdini's impression management techniques, since they involve the creation of a new image of oneself or an opponent, different from the one that exists in reality.

The second way to organize your behavior is to define character traits(features) of successful self-presentation and create your presentation as the sum of the selected features. This group includes self-feeding techniques by G.V. Borozdina, each of the techniques involves highlighting certain features and introducing them into your appearance or behavior in order to draw the recipient's attention to them. Signs (superiority, attractiveness, attitude, state and causes of behavior) are worked out and introduced into behavior separately and, summed up, create the actual technique, which is a way to control the impression of oneself.

So, all the strategies and techniques of self-presentation given in this section can be divided into two groups according to the proposed method of organizing behavior:

1. choice in the social context of the image of self-presentation and its embodiment on the basis of everyday experience;
2. looking for signs of success this case self-presentation, their development and introduction into one's own behavior.

Most research on impression management focuses on the self-presentation aspect of impression management. Often, self-presentation tactics are determined simultaneously by impression management tactics, as well as strategies. This is not surprising, since through self-presentation, people control the impression they make. Related to it is the question of what kind of images people seek to form in the eyes of others. And if the first studies proceeded from the premise that people tend to construct socially approved images, then the studies of recent years recognize the existence of various images and, accordingly, tactics for effective self-presentation.

Thus, a review of the literature revealed that most often researchers single out the following tactics of self-presentation, which have a hidden manipulative nature:

• intimidation(involves presenting oneself as imperious, irrational in order to intimidate the audience);
• pleading(involves presenting oneself as weak and defenseless in order to arouse sympathy from the audience);
• exemplary(involves presenting oneself as morally sound in order to cause the audience to feel ashamed of their sins, etc.).

Often they are overtly manipulative in nature and take the form of various games, brilliantly described by Eric Berne. Their main goal is to control the behavior of other people.

In the work of researchers from Finland, Verkasio M. & Linderman M. (1994), three types of impression management are empirically identified:

• the ability to gain confidence;
• speaking as an example;
• intimidation .

Note that one of the first, and still most frequently used in research, classifications of impression management strategies is the classification of I. Jones and T. Pittman (Jones & Pittman, 1982). The authors understand self-presentation as the behavioral realization of the desire for power in interpersonal relationships, in connection with which they distinguish five types of power and five strategies for achieving it, in other words, strategies for managing the impression made. The content of these impression management strategies, their purposefulness and risks when used are summarized in Table 9.

When studying the content of these impression management strategies, there is a feeling of complete evidence of the awareness of their use by the subject of self-presentation to achieve certain goals. It is interesting to note the risks of these impression management strategies, as a result of the “awkward” use of which an undesirable impression about him may arise for the subject of self-presentation.

Table 9

Impression Management Strategies (Jones & Pittman, 1982): Content Analysis

Self promotion(Self promotion)	Demonstration of their knowledge or skills, brag about them	competent	Conceited, complacent	Appear competent - expert power
exemplary (example)	Demonstration of their merits and achievements, brag about them	role model	demonstrating superiority	Seem worthy of emulation - mentor power
plea	Asking for help, demonstrating dependence and own weakness, depression	needy		To appear weak the power of compassion
Intimidation	Demonstration of anger, threatening trouble, making demands	intimidating		Seem to be dangerous power of fear

It seems important to note that the authors of the scale of self-presentation tactics S.-J. Lee, B. Quigley et al. self-presentation behavior into 12 tactics of assertive and defensive types (the content of these tactics is presented by us in paragraph 2.1.), it is believed that these tactics are both self-presentation tactics and impression management tactics at the same time. Thus, when a person seeks to control the impression, he consciously chooses and uses the tactics of self-presentation he needs for a certain image. At the same time, the same self-presentation tactics can be used by him in his usual, routine situations (communication with family, friends, etc.), when he does not feel the need to control the impression and his self-presentation behavior is less conscious, reactive. The same point of view is shared by researchers M. Leary & R. Kowalsky (1990, 1993), V. Schlenker (1998, 2000, 2003) and others.

It should be noted that the effectiveness of using all the above strategies and tactics of impression management (in terms of achieving the desired image in the eyes of others) directly depends on the action of various factors that can be divided into three main groups: personality-motivational, personal and situational. Let's try to figure out exactly how these factors work.

So all these internal and external factors, that determine the choice of strategy or tactics of self-presentation in the process of impression management are closely interconnected and interact not only during the process of impression management, but also when choosing goals and ways to achieve them.

We share the opinion of Lithuanian researchers (K. Peleckis, V. Peleckiene, A. Mazeikiene, 2011), who summarized these factors, that, first of all, the factors influencing a person’s motivation to create their image, including not only the choice desired image, but also on the decision about what forms of behavior are most appropriate for choosing and developing strategies for self-presentation. It is also important to take into account some external situational factors and existing social norms in society that can affect the planning of self-presentation behavior and its effectiveness.

An attempt to systematize the accumulated theoretical and practical knowledge on the issue of self-presentation was made more than once. At the moment, in domestic and foreign psychology there is no single point of view either on the issue of defining the concept of self-presentation, or on the issue of classifying its types.

Analysis scientific research showed that in socio-psychological research there are different criteria to highlight various kinds self-presentation. Yes, by form share verbal and non-verbal self-presentation (S. Teilor, L. Piplo, D. Sirs), depending on goals(Petrova E.A.) distinguish manipulative and non-manipulative types of self-presentation. By depth, breadth and flexibility(I.I. Petrova) differentiate complete and incomplete self-presentation.

According to V.V. Horoshikh (2001), all types of self-presentation can be conditionally divided into four groups according to the relevant criteria:

Based on- the desire to gain social approval or avoid significant losses in social approval - highlight self-presentation "receptive"(acquisitive) and protective(protective) style (Berglas & Jones, 1978; Arkin, Appelman & Burger, 1980; Schlenker, Weigold, 1992, P. Rosenfeld, R. Giacalone & C. Riordan, 2002, etc.).

According to the awareness of the actions of the subject allocate - perceived(controlled) and unconscious("automatic") self-presentation (Goffman, 1959; Schlenker & Weigold, 1992; Schlenker, 2000, 2003).

According to the criterion of mediation can be identified direct self-presentation (subject - object interaction) and indirect self-presentation (subject - object - subjective interaction).

By way of presenting information allocate direct And indirect self-presentation. (R. Cialdini, R. Bordon, A. Thorne, M. Walker, S. Freeman, L. Sloan, 1976).

In our opinion, three more criteria should be added to this classification:

According to the criterion of purposefulness of impression management(activity - passivity of self-presentation actions of the subject of self-presentation) can be distinguished proactive And reactive self-presentation of personality (S.-J. Lee, V. Quigley, M. Nesler, A. Corbett, J. Tedeschi, 1999).

According to the criterion of combination of the leading motive and the degree of activity of behavior It is possible to distinguish the following four types of self-presentation: assertive, aggressive, defensive, defensive(A. Schutz, 1997). According to the criterion of the time of implementation of self-presentation actions

stand out tactical (tactical self-presentation) and strategic self-presentation (strategic self-presentation) (Tedeschiand Melburg, 1984).

All of the above types of self-presentation are presented by us in Fig. 3.

Rice. 3.

Most of the existing classifications in foreign literature distinguish various strategies and tactics self-presentation behavior.

According to many researchers, strategic self-presentation involves a long period of time and is a form of investment in the future. At the same time, strategic self-presentation can include many individual tactics. Tactical self-presentation is a short-term phenomenon and is usually aimed at creating the desired impression (172, p. 190).

One of the classifications worthy of attention is described in the works of R.F. Baumeister (R. Baumeister) (243, 245). It is based on the motivational aspect; two self-presentation motives: the motive to please the audience (to please the audience) and the motive to construct one’s public self (to construct one’s public self) give rise to two various types self-presentation:

• self-presentation of the type "to please the audience" is an attempt to present oneself in the desired form in accordance with the values ​​and other characteristics of this audience in order to receive the rewards that it has;
• the second type of self-presentation is self-constructive. It comes from the motive to make a favorable impression in general, regardless of the characteristics (such as values ​​and attitudes) of the audience. Here the content of self-presentation is determined by the positive qualities of the individual himself, singled out by him as personal goals and ideals.

Another widely used classification of self-presentation types is its division into assertive(assertive) and protective(defensive) types (J.T. Tedeschi, S. Lindskold, 1976; N. Norman, 1985). By assertive self-presentation, the authors understand behavior aimed at creating certain new identities in the eyes of others, while defensive self-presentation includes actions aimed at recreating a positive identity or changing an already existing negative identity.

S.-J. Lee (Suk-Zhae Lee) and other authors (370), based on this two-component model, created their own classification in 1999, in which they distinguish 12 presentation tactics. Seven of them belong to assertive type. This desire to please (ingratiation), intimidation (intimidation), request / plea (supplication), attribution of achievements to one's own account (entitlement), exaggeration of one's own achievements (enhancement), negative assessment of others (blasting), explanation by example (exemplification).

Protective The type of self-presentation includes five tactics: justification with the denial of responsibility (excuse), renunciation (disclaimer), justification with the acceptance of responsibility (justification), self-handicapping (self-handicapping) and apology (apologies). The authors of this classification believe that a defensive type of self-presentation takes place when an event contains a threat to an existing desired identity. In such cases, self-presentation will be aimed at restoring and maintaining identity or at reducing negative consequences threatening situation. Assertive self-presentation refers to proactive behavior aimed at creating a certain identity. Researchers also believe that impression management tactics and self-presentation tactics are one and the same. Only in a situation of impression management, the choice of self-presentation tactics is carried out by a person more consciously. The researchers M. Leary & R. Kowalsky (1990, 1993) adhere to the same point of view.

The theoretical and practical significance of this classification lies in the fact that its authors (S.J. Lee, B. Quigley, M. Nesler, A. Corbett, J. Tedeschi, 1999) developed a scale of self-presentation tactics based on the existing conceptual definitions of other researchers who previously studied the process self-presentation (the contents of these tactics are given at the end of the paragraph). They summarized all the theoretical concepts available in the scientific literature on the content of each self-presentation tactic, which were categorized by them as defensive and assertive (see Fig. 4).

Rice. 4.

The work of another psychologist M.R. Leary (P.M. Leary) (362) contains several classifications of self-presentation types, the author highlights especially its attributive (attributive) and denying (repudiative) types that take place in social interaction, depending on whether the individual seeks to create the impression that he has or does not have certain characteristics.

Along with the obvious advantages of the above-described classifications, it is important to note that they are largely classifications of the behavioral aspect of self-presentation and do not contain sufficiently deep connections with the personality traits that carry out self-presentation.

R.M. Arkin (R.M. Arkin) (231) identifies two types of self-presentation: reaching(dicquisitive) and protective / protective(protective). Achieving self-presentation is aimed at obtaining social approval and largely coincides with the concept of assertive self-presentation.

The protective type includes very cautious, conservative behavior aimed at avoiding disapproval. It is characterized by modest self-descriptions, the use of vague statements, self-deprecation, and a reduction in the frequency of social interactions. In his work, R.M. Arkin, unlike previous authors, emphasizes that the preference for one or another type of self-presentation is the result of the interaction of the following factors: the characteristics of the audience to which the self-presentation is directed, the context and the person who performs it. So, for example, among the personal characteristics of those who regularly prefer a protective type of self-presentation, there will be social anxiety, timidity, conformity, secrecy, low self-esteem.

HER. Jones (E. Jones, 1990) (351) identifies eight strategies for self-presentation. The first four strategies: self-praise (self-glorification), desire to please (ingratiation), imitation (identification), favor, can be conditionally combined into one group called "search" since they are varieties of a more general strategy of forming the favor of the target person (ingratiating strategy). The person using such strategies is "seeking favor" with the target persona.

The following four strategies: intimidation, self-promotion, exemplification, supplication are alternative to search strategies, since they are not aimed at “search for the location” of the target person.

The analysis of self-presentation aspects of social behavior allowed E. Jones to identify, in addition to self-presentation strategies, some tactics that are necessary for their implementation. Thus, the following tactics can be used to implement the integration strategy: positive statements the subject about himself; elevating the target persona in the form of flattery, compliments, and other positive reinforcement; showing interest in another person; conformity of opinions; provision of any services (351).

E. Jones refers to the tactics that implement the strategy of self-nomination as a demonstration of a successful performance or a reference to past achievements. As a tactic that implements the strategy of intimidation, E. Jones gives an example of verbal threats to the addressee of influence in order to achieve the desired behavior.

Further, according to E. Jones, the use of the exemplar-bearing strategy involves demonstrating the moral merits of the subject of self-presentation and using the following behavioral tactics: self-denial, disregard for one's own interests, fighting for a “just” cause, and providing assistance. Implementing the strategy of asking, a person uses the tactics of demonstrating his own helplessness and asking the object of self-presentation.

Researcher William L. Benoit (William L. Benoit, 1995) developed his theory of "image restoration", which includes specific self-presentation strategies. W. Benoit noted that people face "damage to their reputation" due to their own wrong actions or when they are suspected of them. According to the research of W. Benoit, people engage in "communication behavior designed to reduce, restore or avoid damage to their reputation (or, in other words, face / image)" [ 161, p. 64].

Subsequently, W. Benoit renamed his theory as "image repair", since restoration suggests that the image can be restored to its previous state (W. L. Benoit, 2000; Burns & Bruner, 2000). He compiled a classification of "image repair" strategies that includes 5 general strategies and 12 tactics included in them (see Table 3). For us in this work, it is especially important to divide the process of self-presentation into strategies and tactics.

Table 3

Image Repair Strategies (W. L. Benoit, 2000)

Strategy and tactics	Key Feature
Refusal- negation - Simple rejection - Charge transfer	- Did not (or the action did not take place); - Another did;
Avoidance of responsibility - Provocation - Ability to undo an action - Accident - Good intentions	-The action was a response to someone's attack/insult; - Lack of information or ability; - The action was a failure; - The action had good intentions;
Reduced aggressiveness - Maintenance - Minimization - Differentiation - Excellence - Attacking accusation - Compensation	- Emphasize good features; - The action was not serious; The action was less serious than similar others; There were more important justifications; Reducing the credibility of the attacker's information; Compensation for the victim/loss;
Corrective action	Planning to solve a problem or prevent it from happening again;
chagrin	Apology

W. Benoit's classification clearly demonstrates to us that the concepts of "strategy" and "tactics" in self-presentation are not synonymous concepts. Strategy is more common line human behavior and tactics self-presentations are just a particular manifestation of any strategy.

One of the most successful attempts to classify the types of self-presentation belongs to the German psychologist A. Schutz (A. Schutz, 1997) (421). It distinguishes four styles, each of which includes five or six tactics: assertive(assertive) aggressive(offensive) protective(protective) and justifying(defensive). This classification is based on the analysis of two variables: 1) the leading motives of self-presentation (the desire to "look good", that is, to obtain social approval - the desire "not to look bad" or to avoid significant losses in social approval) and 2) the activity or passivity of self-presentation behavior (Fig. . 5).

Assertive(assertive) self-presentation involves active, but not aggressive attempts to form a favorable impression of oneself. In the process of assertive self-presentation, the actors present the traits they want in a given situation. Assertive self-presentation includes the tactics of ingratiation, self-promotion, exemplification, power promotion, and identification.

Unlike the strategy of intimidation (E. Jones), the demonstration of force tactics is not aimed at creating fear, but should convince the target person (for example, a voter) that the subject of self-presentation (for example, a candidate) is able to fulfill promises and fulfill demands.

Aggressive(offensive) self-presentation involves the use of an aggressive way of presenting the desired image. People who use this style of self-presentation seek to dominate in order to appear favorable ("trying to appear good by making others look bad"). Aggressive self-presentation includes tactics: derogating competitors, irony and critical evaluation of the third (not present) side (critical evaluation of the third party), tactics of “criticism of criticism” (criticism directed at the person who asks a critical question or expresses critical remarks) (attacking the source of criticism) and the tactics of "restricting the topic of discussion", which involves the desire to change the topic of discussion (determining the topic of discussion).

Protective(protective) self-presentation involves a "passive" desire to avoid a negative impression |421, p. 617|. People involved in defensive self-presentation often avoid disturbing, embarrassing situations and thus forgo opportunities to form a favorable impression and enhance self-esteem. Defensive self-presentation includes avoiding public attention, minimal self-disclosure, cautious self-description, minimizing social interaction(minimizing social interaction), the desire to remain silent (remaining silent), passive but friendly interaction (passive but friendly interaction).

Justifying(defensive) self-presentation involves the desire of a person not to look bad, trying to refute the existing negative opinion about him. A. Schutz refers to tactics that implement self-justifying self-presentation: tactics of denial (denial), changing the interpretation of an event (reframing), separation from the group (the main statement is “This is not me”) (dissociation), justifying negative actions with taking responsibility for oneself (justification), justification of negative actions without taking responsibility for oneself (excuses), demonstration of recognition, apology, correction (concession, apologies, and remedation).

Rice. 5.

In one of recent works on impression management (180), a team of researchers P. Rosenfeld, R. Giacalone and K. Riordan (Paul Rosenfeld, Robert Giacalone & Catherine Riordan, 2002) proposed their own classification of self-presentation behavior, in which two types of self-presentation are distinguished: susceptible(acquisitive) and protective(protective), each of which is divided in turn into tactics.

Susceptible The view includes the following tactics: integration(ingratiation), in which such forms as conformity of opinions (opinion conformity), provision of services and / or favors (favor-doing), elevation of others (other-enhancement), self-exaltation (self-enhancement) are distinguished; self-promotion(self-promotion), intimidation(intimidation), exemplification(example), request/plea(supplication), credit for accomplishments(entitlement). Defensive self-presentation includes tactics such as excuse with denial of responsibility(excuse) justification with acceptance of responsibility

(justification), renunciation(disclaimer) hindering oneself(self-handicapping), apology(apology).

Researchers D. Tedeschi and V. Melburg (J. Tedeschi & V. Melburg, 1984) divided a person's self-presentation behavior into 4 categories based on the differences between tactical and strategic self-presentation, and between defensive and assertive behavior. “An illustrative example for each category is: apology - for tactical-defensive behavior; intimidation - for tactically assertive behavior; experiencing anxiety - for strategic-protective behavior; and attractiveness for strategically assertive behavior.

The team of authors of the scale of self-presentation tactics (S.J. Lee, B. Quigley, M. Nesler, A. Corbett, J. Tedeschi, 1999) defines the essence of the concept of self-presentation tactics as follows: “Self-presentation tactics are the behavior used to control the impression necessary to achieve envisaged short-term interpersonal aspirations or goals, while strategic behavior is aimed at constructing long-term identities” [ibid |.

According to S.Zh. Lee and his colleagues, tactical self-presentation focuses on specific behaviors, while strategic self-presentation focuses on the identities that a person constructs. And many different tactics of self-presentation can be used to construct one identity.

The author of one of the domestic studies on self-presentation strategies (2002), Yu.P. Kosheleva, defines self-presentation strategies as ".... conscious or unconscious ways of broadcasting one's image of "I" in order to create the desired impression of oneself" .

Yu.M. Zhukov (2003) identifies two levels in a person's communicative competence - operational-tactical and strategic. TO operational-tactical The level of the author refers to the ability to operate with existing knowledge and skills to solve communication problems, and this includes "... not only the ability to adjust one's actions in connection with a changing situation, but also the ability to transform the situation by one's actions if it becomes unfavorable for solving the tasks" . IN strategic the same level includes "... communicative attitudes, orientations and predispositions, such as orientation towards open or closed communication, attitude towards manipulation, etc." | ibid.].

According to Yu.M. Zhukov, “in the mind of a person planning and carrying out communicative actions, a predominantly tactical plan is presented, as for technical and strategic ones, for various reasons they are out of the focus of consciousness” [ibid.].

Based on the analysis of various ideas about strategic and tactical communicative behavior and the essence of self-presentation tactics, we adhere to the following understanding of the phenomenon under consideration:

Self-presentation tactics- is short term a behavioral act that includes a set of verbal and non-verbal behavior techniques aimed at creating the desired impression, necessary for certain short-term goals, about the subject of self-presentation.

Self-presentation strategy is to varying degrees conscious and planned the behavior of the subject of self-presentation, aimed at creating the desired impression, taking into account long-term identities, and using certain tactics of self-presentation for its implementation.

Thus, in our opinion, it seems possible to attribute all tactics of self-presentation to certain groups - strategies.

In table. 4 describes defensive and assertive tactics of self-presentation (according to the classification of S.-J. Lee and a team of authors, 1999), which we classified into certain groups - self-presentation strategies. In addition, we have tried to adapt the content characteristics of each of the tactics in relation to the context of our Russian culture.

The main reason for the selection by us strategies self-presentation was the characteristic behavior of people who tend to gain social approval or avoid significant losses in social approval (Berglas & Jones, 1978; Arkin, Appelman & Burgerl980; Schlenker, 1992, 2003; Rosenfeld, Giacalone & Riordan, 2002, etc.). Yes, strategies attractive behavior, self-exaltation and forceful influence directly aimed at obtaining the approval of others, the strategies evasion and self-deprecation usually used by a person to avoid a bad impression of himself.

Table 4

Strategies and tactics of personal self-presentation (content of tactics according to S.-J. Lee atal., 1999) [Pikuleva, 2004]

Presentation strategies (5)	Tactics self-presentation (12)
1. Evasion (the strategy is highlighted on the basis of "avoidance of responsibility and avoidance of decisive action")	1. excuse with denial of responsibility (3) 2. renunciation (3) 3. hindering oneself (3)	1. verbal statements denying responsibility for negative actions or events (like "I didn't do it") 2. verbal explanation of the reasons for the behavior before a difficult or unpleasant situation occurs (to prevent accusations) 3. creating an obstacle/hindrance in order to be successful, with the intent to prevent observers from drawing characteristic conclusions about his (the subject's) shortcomings (usually references to poor health, illness, excessive social activities, etc.)
2. Attractive Behavior- integration (the strategy is distinguished on the basis of "behavior that causes a favorable impression of the subject of self-presentation")	4. desire to please (A) 5. apology (3)	4. actions and deeds shown to arouse sympathy for the subject in others, often with the aim of obtaining some benefit from them (can take the form of flattery, conformity of opinions, exaltation of others, rendering services and making gifts) 5. recognition of responsibility for any offense, harm caused to others or for negative actions, expression of remorse and guilt (often evaluated as a norm of politeness)

	6. exemplary (role model) (A)	6. behavior presented by the subject as morally valuable and attractive in order to command respect, imitation and / or admiration (usually integrity in matters of morality, selfless attitude to work, etc., heroism is the highest form of manifestation of this tactic)
H. Self-exaltation (strategy highlighted on the basis of: "demonstration of high self-esteem and dominance")	7. self-attributing achievements (A) 8. exaggeration of their achievements (A) 9. justification with acceptance of responsibility (3)	7. statements of the subject about responsibility and trust for positive achievements (messages about their merits, exaggeration of past achievements) 8. belief by the subject of others that the results of his behavior are more positive than they can be determined in reality 9. Giving justifying and approved reasons to explain the negative behavior, and accepting responsibility for it (like "if you were me, you would do the same thing")
4. Self-deprecation (the strategy is highlighted on the basis of: "demonstration of weakness"	request/plea (A)	10. demonstration by the subject of his own helplessness, weakness and dependence in order to turn to the target person for help
5.Power influence (strategy highlighted on the basis of: “demonstration of strength and status”)	11. intimidation (A) 12. negative evaluation of others (A)	11. uttering threats by the subject in order to arouse fear in the object of self-presentation and increase the effectiveness of conditional threats (tactic is used to project the identity of the subject as someone who is strong and dangerous) 12. statement by the subject of negative and critical assessments of other people or groups with which the subject associates them

Legend:

• (3) - tactics of the defensive type of self-presentation;
• (A) - tactics of the assertive type of self-presentation.

We have identified five types of strategies for self-presentation behavior, including twelve tactics of defensive and assertive types of self-presentation: strategy evasion, strategy attractive behavior, strategy self-exaltation, strategy power influence and strategy self-deprecation. The results of studies (both by the authors of the scale of tactics and by the author of the monograph) revealed that defensive and assertive tactics are interrelated in the self-presentation behavior of a person, and this is expressed in the fact that a person who often uses assertive tactics also uses defensive tactics more often, having thus, a very wide range of options for their behavior in situations of social interaction.

It should be noted that the “please/plea” tactic, which we included in the “self-abasement” strategy, is characterized by the originality of its manifestation and some inconsistency. Most foreign researchers endow this tactic with assertive properties, relying on the purposeful proactivity of the behavior of the subject of self-presentation using this tactic (to achieve the goal, the subject performs the necessary active actions). The inconsistency, in our opinion, lies in the discrepancy between the understanding of the concepts of “assertiveness” and “self-deprecation” that is common to Russian culture.

Assuming that these strategies and tactics of self-presentation in communication are most often manipulative in nature, we did not change the belonging of this tactic to the type of self-presentation accepted in psychological literature.

During the expert discussion (during the author's video trainings on effective self-presentation - approx.) of the content components of tactics and the reasons for highlighting the above self-presentation strategies, we paid special attention to the group of self-presentation tactics that we classified as attractive behavior strategies. This strategy included two assertive and one defensive tactics of self-presentation, which were defined by the majority of participants in the author's trainings as behavior that causes a favorable impression on the subject of self-presentation.

In our opinion, this classification of strategic and tactical self-presentation behavior is simple and understandable in terms of a meaningful description and can be useful for practical use in the field of human-oriented professional activity.

It has already been mentioned earlier that the studies carried out by us in last years on a Russian sample using the technique of S. J. Lee et al. (S. J. Lee et al., 1999), showed that in the process of self-presentation, regardless of the degree of awareness of their behavioral strategies. It should be noted that preference for certain tactics is given depending on the social context, personal characteristics, as well as goals and objectives, mainly due social status and professional activities subject of self-presentation.

This technique, developed by a team of authors, was published in 1999 (S.-J. Lee, Quigley V.M., Nesler M.S., Corbett A.B., Tedeschi J. Development of a self-presentation tactics scale // Personality and Individual Differences, 1999, 26, pp. 701-722).

Due to the fact that this technique is one of the main methodological tools of our research, it seems necessary to provide here a meaningful description of each of the twelve tactics, without deviating from the author's verbatim formulations.

According to S. J. Lee, B. Quigley, M. Nesler, A. Corbett, J. Tedeschi: "Defensive tactics presentations include:

• A) justification with denial of responsibility: verbal statements/declarations denying responsibility for negative acts or events (Tedeschi and Lindskold, 1976);
• b) justification with acceptance of responsibility: providing redemptive reasons for explaining negative behavior as justified, and accepting responsibility for it (Scott and Lyman, 1968);
• V) retraction: expressions offering explanations for the causes of behavior before a predicament or unpleasant situation occurs (Hewitt and Stokes, 1975);
• G) self-inhibition: creating an obstacle/hindrance to being successful, with the intention of preventing observers from drawing characteristic inferences about their (subject's) shortcomings (Berglas and Jones, 1978);
• e) apology: an acknowledgment of responsibility for any hurt, harm done to others, or negative actions, an expression of remorse and guilt (Tedeschi and Lindskold, 1976).

Assertive Tactics include:

• A) wishing/trying to please: actions and deeds shown to make others like the "actor" in such a way that the "actor" can benefit from them (Jones and Pittman, 1982). "Pleasing" can take the form of self-enhancing communication, flattery, opinion conformity, and favors/gifts (Jones and Wortman, 1973);
• b) intimidation: actions that have the purpose of projecting the identity of the "actor" as someone who is powerful and dangerous. Intimidation tactics are used to create fear in the target and increase the effectiveness of conditioned threats (Jones and Pittman, 1982);
• V) request/plea: The "actor" projects himself as weak and shows dependence in order to ask for help from the target person (Jones and Pittman, 1982);
• G) self-attributing achievement: an "actor" claim of responsibility and trust for positive achievement (Tedeschi and Lindskold, 1976);
• e) exaggeration of one's achievements: the "actor" convinces others that the results of his behavior are more positive than they can be determined in reality (Schlenker, 1980);
• e) negative assessment of others/cursing: behavior designed to present or express negative assessments of other people or groups with which the "actor" simply associates them (Cialdini and Richardson, 1980);
• and) exemplification: behavior presented by the "actor" as morally valuable and attractive. Using this tactic, the "actor" can command the respect, imitation, or admiration of others (Jones and Pittman, 1982)." )